Blog

The meaning of metal – When we hear the word metal, it must be familiar to our ears, Reader. Unknowingly we can find things around us that have metal elements. This material is very commonly used and used in our daily life. However, do Reader already know what the meaning of metal is? To know more about metals, then Reader can read the explanation of this article about what metals are.

Meaning of Metal

Metal is a chemical element that is strong, sticky, hard and able to conduct electricity or heat energy. Metals also have a high melting point. In addition, metals come from metal ores and to obtain them by means of mining.

Generally, it is only done and searched for in the earth, whether it is pure or has a mixture of metals. Metal ores are found in a pure state, for example gold, silver, platinum. In addition, some are mixed with other elements such as carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, silicon, soil and sand.

The word metal itself comes from the Greek word matallon, which means that a chemical element that is ready to combine to form an ion. Then, it has a metallic bond and is considered a metal similar to the chiton that is below the electron.

Metalworking Fabrication Techniques

Metallic Elements

In the explanation above we already know that metal is a hard chemical element and can melt at a very high boiling point. Metal elements that are widely known include metals, non-metals, and semi-metals. Here is an explanation of the metallic elements.

1. Metal Elements

In this element, the material is very shiny and able to be a good conductor of electricity and heat. Metals will generally be solid at normal pressure and temperature unless mercury is used. Basically, metal is very easy to forge this which makes it easy to make various things.

For types of metal elements such as aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), gold (Au), barium (Ba), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), chromium (Cr), nickel (N), sodium (Na), Manganese (Mn) and Magnesium (Mg).

2. Non-Metallic Elements

In this element, metal does not have the slightest metallic properties. Most of these non-metallic elements have physical characteristics and shapes that are different from each other. Generally, non-metallic elements are in the form of gases such as oxygen. Some are liquid like bromine. In addition, when non-metallic elements are solid, the texture is brittle and hard.

For types of non-metallic elements such as Oxygen (O), Iodine (I), Silicon (Si), Neon (Ne), Nitrogen (N), Carbon (c), Chlorine (Ci), Helium (He), Hydrogen (H) , Phosphorus (P), Fluorine (F), Sulfur (S) and Bromine (Br).

3. Semi Metal Elements

There are not only metal and non-metal elements, one other element is semi-metal. This element generally still has some metallic properties known as metalloids. In this element, it usually has semi-conducting properties which cannot conduct electricity at low temperatures. However, it will be very good when it is at a higher temperature.

For the types of semi-metallic elements themselves, they consist of tellurium (Te), polonium (Po), antimony (Sb), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), silicon (Si) and boron (B).

Electroplating Metal Coating Technique with Electricity

Properties of Metals

According to their properties, metals are divided into two, namely metals and non-metals. The nature of metals certainly has various special features that have been fundamental except for mercury. According to the electron configuration, the nature of metals tends to give up electrons. In contrast to non-metallic properties that are more likely to capture metals.

Here are the basic properties of various types of metals such as:

1. Having Different Levels of Strength and Hardness

Each type of metal generally has a different level of hardness. Generally, the hardness can be increased by mixing other metals. Be aware that metal is known to be very strong. Just not with mercury.

2. Easily Available to Forge

Metals are easy to shape by being forged and stretched. The presence of a valence electron makes the metal easy to move in the crystal. According to its nature, metal can be forged into thin plates and when pulled can also be bent.

3. Become a Good Electrical Conductor

Capable of being a good conductor of electricity. When a metal is electrified, its electrons will carry a valence charge throughout the metal. So that it can create an electric current in the metal.

4. Capable of Transmitting Heat

Freely moving valence electrons can cause metals to be good conductors of heat. When a type of metal, one side is heated, then the available electrons will receive heat. So that it can cause the metal to become a conductor of electricity. The more the kinetic energy increases and the faster it moves, the better it will be.

5. Shiny

All types of metals will certainly shine when exposed to light in their surface. Therefore, in this time, the nature of the metal will re-emit the light energy it gets from certain waves.

6. High Relative Density

Known for its relatively high density, a metal property that can determine or show the metal structure.

• In type a, it shows a simple cube structure. (sc = simple cubic ).
• Type b, shows a centered structure of the body. (bcc = body centered cubic ).
• While type c, face centered structure. (fcc = face centered cubic ).

Classification of Metal Types

As it is known that metals also consist of many different types. For this reason, many classifications are based on physical characteristics or even basic materials. In its classification, metals are grouped in general and according to their basic material.

Grouping of Metals in General

In the general grouping of metals, they are divided into 4 groups based on their type. The following is the discussion:

1. Heavy Metals

In the heavy metal group, it is generally derived from metals as a whole. For example, metals in the form of nickel, iron, chrome, tin, copper, zinc, tin, black and white, and there are many others.

2. Light Metals

In the light metal group, it is composed of metals that are just not completely composed or it can also be said that the composing metal is light. Examples of these light metals are magnesium, aluminum, titanium, calcium, sodium, barium and potassium.

3. Refractory Metals

As for what is meant by fire-resistant metal, this type of metal is able to withstand or be able to withstand fire with a certain temperature range. Examples of these refractory metals are titanium, zirconium, tungsten, and molybdenum.

4. Precious Metals

The last is a precious metal, usually this type of metal is often used and used for jewelry or other equipment. not only that, for this type of precious metal, it usually gives quite an expensive price. Examples of these precious metals are gold, platinum, and silver.

Grouping Metals Based on Their Base Materials

The grouping of metals from the base material that composes them is divided into two groups, Generally, a type of metal is composed of iron or non-iron. See the explanation below:

1. Iron Metal (Ferrous)

A type of metal whose alloy consists of a mixture of carbon and iron. For the type of metal in the form of cast iron, wrought iron, medium and high carbon steel, mild steel and mixed carbon steel.

2. Non-Ferrous Metals (Non-Ferrous)

This type of non-ferrous metal has an alloy or mixture containing Fe. Among these metals are aluminum, copper, lead and tin.

Examples of Types of Metals and Their Functions

As explained above that metals have many types and also their groupings, then it is not surprising if metals are the elements that have the most amount on earth. But each type of metal has its own uses. The following are some types of metals that are often used in everyday life:

1. Zinc

Zinc is a metal that has a bluish white color, which comes from a sphalerite mineral. Usually, zinc is used to coat iron so that it does not easily rust or galvanize. In addition, zinc can also be used for electric batteries.

2. Copper

Copper is a metal that has special characteristics with its reddish color. In addition, this metal is very malleable. Generally, it is used to make electric cables, brass alloys, bronze, cupronickel and hot water tanks.

3. Solder

Solder is an alloy of tin and lead. Known for its very low melting point. Usually, used to connect cables for an electronic item.

4. Mercury

Mercury is a metal that has a liquid form but is also heavy. Mercury has a silvery white color and don’t forget this mercury is a poisonous substance. Mercury is commonly used in a thermometer and some explosives.

5. Platinum

Platinum is a metal that has a silvery white color. In addition, platinum is very easy to shape. Platinum is often used to make jewelry, electronic items or can also be a catalyst.

6. Plutonium

Furthermore, there is a radioactive metal, namely plutonium, which is produced from a uranium process in a nuclear reactor. Generally, plutonium is used to make a nuclear weapon.

7. Titanium

Next is titanium, titanium is included in the type of strong metal, which has the characteristic white color and is very easy to shape. Titanium is highly resistant to corrosion. Typically titanium is used for alloys in spacecraft, bicycle frames and airplanes.

8. Tin

Tin is a soft metal, which is very easy to form and has a silvery white color. Tin is often used to gild a steel and stop a corrosion of bronze alloys.

9. Lead

Lead is a type of heavy metal that has a whitish blue color and is easy to form. For lead itself including the poisonous type. Typically, lead is used for batteries, roofing, and radiation shielding.

10. Aluminum

Aluminum has physical characteristics in the form of a silvery-white color, very light and also resistant to corrosion. This aluminum comes from a bauxite ore obtained from the electrolysis process. Aluminum is often used for electrical cables in the air, ships, airplanes, cars and bottled drinks.

11. Iron

Next is iron, this type of metal has physical characteristics in the form of a whitish ash color. Iron is produced from a process of smelting hematite ore. Iron is generally used for building and steel alloys.

12. Fertilizer

Steel is a very widely used metal and plays an important role in the industrial sector. This is because the composition of steel consists of an alloy of iron and carbon, both of which are often needed in industry.

13. Gold

Gold is a metal that includes precious metals, gold has very soft properties and has a bright yellow color. Certainly Reader already know that gold is often used for jewelry and electronic devices.

14. Potassium

Potassium is included in light metals which have physical characteristics in the form of a silvery color and are very reactive with other substances or elements. Potassium is generally used to mix chemical fertilizers and can be used to make glass.

15. Calcium

Calcium has a silvery white color and is included in metals that are very easy to form. In its own use, calcium is usually used to make high quality cement or fertilizer.

16. Magnesium

Magnesium itself belongs to the category of light metals. Magnesium has a whitish silver color and if burned will give rise to a bright white flame. Magnesium is often used for rescue flares and fireworks.

17. Chromium

This metal has a gray color and is very hard. Chromium can be used to create a shiny color. Chromium is also often used to make rust-resistant steel and can coat various other metals.

18. Cupronickel

Cupronickel is one type of alloy made of copper and nickel. Cupronickel is used and used to make coins.

19. Silver

Silver is a metal that is very easy to form and has a grayish white color. Silver is also capable of being a good conductor of heat and electricity. Silver is also often used to make jewelry and photographic equipment.

20. Bronze

Bronze comes from an alloy of copper and tin that has been around since ancient times. Bronze is known for its resistance to corrosion and is very easy to form. Bronze is usually used to make coins of low value.

21. Brass

Brass is one type of alloy, which is made of copper and zinc. Brass is usually used for decorative items, musical instruments, nails and screws.

22. Wolfram

Wolfram is a hard metal, which has a whitish gray color. Wolfram is also often used for lamp filaments, electronic items or even a sharp cutting tool.

23. Sodium

Sodium is a very reactive metal and has soft properties and a silvery white color. Sodium is often used for street lights and used in a chemical industry.

24. Uranium

Uranium is one of the metals that has a silvery white color and is included in the radioactive. Uranium itself is widely used for nuclear energy or even nuclear weapons.

25. Vanadium

Vanadium is a hard and poisonous metal. Vanadium is often used to increase the hardness of steel alloys. In addition, it is often used as a catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid.

Principles of Inorganic Chemistry: An Introduction to the Chemistry of Non-Metallic Elements

Closing

Well , he Reader an explanation about the meaning of metals , types, and elements and properties of metals. Hopefully all the discussions above are useful and add insight for Reader.

Meaning of Digital Literacy – In this age of advanced technology, communication and information can be delivered quickly and easily. Good utilization of technology is actually able to help the development of important areas in the life of the community, such as education and economy. If these fields can experience progress, then the civilization of this nation can also progress.

Meaning of Digital Literacy

Then, what is the definition of digital literacy? According to Paul Gilster (2007, in Harjono) said that digital literacy is the ability to understand and use information obtained from various sources.

Meanwhile, according to Deakin University’s Graduate Learning Outcome 3, it is revealed that digital literacy is an effort to utilize technology in finding, using, and disseminating information in the digital world as it is today.

Meanwhile, according to Common Sense Media (2009, in Harjono) thinks that digital literacy includes the existence of three abilities in the form of technology utilization competence, interpreting and understanding digital content as well as assessing its credibility, researching and communicating with the right tools.

So, it can be concluded that digital literacy is an effort that individuals need in a sophisticated era like today to filter information accurately. Another effort to support digital literacy is the use of the right application and an in-depth understanding of the information obtained. Considering the impact on the spread of hoax in society is very worrying.

Bad literacy turns out to have a bad impact on the psychology of teenagers. This is because teenagers tend to be unstable and often swallow the information they receive raw without finding out the truth and accuracy of the information.

Components in Digital Literacy

The nine components are social networking, transliteracy, maintaining privacy, managing identify, creating content, organizing and sharing content, reusing/repurposing content, filtering and selecting content , and self broadcasting .

In order to better understand the nine components, let’s explain them one by one!

1. Social Networking

Nowadays, every individual must have more than one social media account, starting from Meta (Facebook), Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram, TikTok, and WhatsApp.

The acquisition of information from social media must also be selected first. However, not everyone is careful in trying to filter the information that is spread.

The ability to utilize the features found in a social media application is basic knowledge that must be possessed by its users.

For example, those who work in the academic world make more use of social media in the form of LinkedIn to support their relationships with scholars around the world. Then, those who work in the field of marketing, take advantage of the ‘Shop’ feature in the Instagram platform to promote their products.

2. Transliteracy

This component of transliteracy is defined as an effort to utilize various platforms to create content, share it and communicate it. In this component, the ability to communicate with various social media, discussion groups, or other online services is prioritized.

3. Maintaining Privacy

Privacy is important in this digital literacy. We as social media users from various platforms must understand cyber crime . Currently, cyber crime has become rampant as the digital world develops.

What is cyber crime ? Cyber ​​crime is cyber crime that involves illegal activities using computers, digital devices or computer networks.

Examples of cyber crime that often occur are online theft via credit card ( carding ), hacking via email, to theft of personal information ( phishing ).

4. Managing Digital Identity

This fourth component, namely managing digital identity, is related to how we as platform users use identity accurately on the various social media we have.

5. Creating Content

Creating content is our skill as a platform user in making or creating content, for example PowToon, blogspot, wordpress, and other platforms .

6. Organizing and Sharing Content

Organizing and sharing content is related to how we as platform users organize and share information content so that it can be more easily disseminated to the general public. For example, the use of social bookmarking sites that are judged to facilitate the process of disseminating information and can be accessed by many internet users.

7. Reusing/ Repurposing Content

In this component of reusing/repurposing content , prioritizing how we as platform users create or ‘reprocess’ existing content so that it can be reused as needed.

For example, a teacher creates content on Indonesian language subjects with lecture text material. The content is uploaded on the Slideshare platform , with the aim that many people download and study it.

After that, the content is ‘processed’ again by others by adding more complete new information or knowledge.

8. Filtering and Selecting Content

In this component of filtering and selecting content, we prioritize the ability to find and filter the right information according to our needs through search engines on the internet.

9. Self Broadcasting

In this component, it has the purpose of sharing interesting ideas or ideas as well as multimedia content through various platforms , for example through blogs or online forums . This Self Broadcasting can be an effort to participate in the online social community in digital literacy activities.

Benefits of Digital Literacy

The ten benefits are saving time, learning faster, saving money, making it safer, acquisition of the latest information, always connected, making better decisions, can make you want to work, be happier, and can influence the world.

To better understand, let’s listen to the description of the ten benefits!

1. Save Time

In an effort to find the information needed faster thanks to this digital literacy. For example, when you get an assignment from your teacher or lecturer to find certain information, through your digital literacy skills you can find out reliable sources of information that can then be used as a reference for your task needs.

The speed in finding the information can certainly save you time. The benefits are not only felt by students, but also by online services that provide services online so that you do not have to come and visit the service directly.

2. Learn Faster

For example, you get an assignment from your teacher or lecturer to search and find definitions of certain terms. It will feel difficult when you have to look for it in a printed glossary.

Therefore, it will be faster if you take advantage of an online platform that provides definitions of these terms.

3. Save Money

In a sophisticated era like now, it is common to find special applications that contain a comparison of discounts on a product. The application when used carefully can certainly save our production in trying to buy the product.

4. Making it Safer

The circulation of information from various sources makes it easier for us as internet users to find the right information according to our needs.

For example, when you want to go abroad, you can find information about your destination country from the internet. Information about what culture is found in your destination country or the history of its tourist attractions.

5. Acquisition of Latest Information

Applications that are on our devices often update their versions to be better, thus helping us to obtain the latest information. Through the ability of literacy in digital form, we get the latest information. However, don’t forget to check if the information is accurate or not, yes…

6. Always Connected

The existence of the internet network in the use of applications or social media makes us always feel connected to the general public, especially during the communication process. So that when you are feeling desperate, you can quickly communicate with your friend.

7. Make Better Decisions

The existence of digital literacy makes us able to search, learn, analyze and compare the information obtained. This can certainly prepare better decisions from the process of analyzing and comparing the information.

An information can be said to be something valuable if the information can influence us to act to do something.

8. Can Make You Work

In this all-digital era, the ability to operate a computer is one of the skills that everyone should have. These skills can actually help us in our daily work. For example, skills in using Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Power Point, etc.

Where can you learn these skills? Of course from the information available on the internet then you read and try to operate it according to the information that has been written.

9. Be Happier

The existence of content in the form of pictures, sound, audio-visual (video) that is spread on the internet turns out to be entertaining. Internet users who often access those contents feel happier and have an influence on their happiness.

However, not all of these contents are entertaining. Sometimes there is also content that makes people sad or even angry. As intelligent internet users, we must be careful in filtering those contents for the “well-being” of our mood.

10. Influence the World

As explained in benefit number nine before, the content available on the internet can affect its users. Yes, it’s true, whether the content is in the form of writing, pictures, or audio-visuals, it can clearly influence the thinking of its users.

The dissemination of content when properly directed can contribute to the development and change in the dynamics of social life.

When viewed from a larger scope, the dedication of a person’s thoughts spread through the internet becomes a form of expression that can later affect the life of the world, both in the present and in the future.

Digital Literacy Improvement Efforts

1. Perpusnas

The information literacy program has become part of the library service program in Indonesia. From the advancement of technology, digital information resources are becoming more and more abundant due to the large number of sources that provide the information.

Currently, the government has contributed to efforts to increase digital literacy by launching various programs.

One of them is the program developed by the National Library of the Republic of Indonesia (PNRI) with e-resources services at http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id/ .

Not only that, the National Library of the Republic of Indonesia (PNRI) also provides digital services that of course contain various information sources in the form of journals, e-books , multimedia, manuscripts, and others.

2. ePerpus

ePerpus is a digital library service with a B2B (Business to Business) concept carried by Kompas Sinaumedia. ePerpus offers digital library management for schools, companies, institutions, and communities.  https://www.eperpus.com/home/

3. Digital Sinaumedia

Sinaumedia Digital is an ebook application with the most complete collection of books, newspapers and magazines from renowned writers and publishers. Sinaumedia Digital can be accessed via an Android or Apple smartphone or tablet. https://ebooks.Sinaumedia.com/

These efforts are carried out with the aim of making a positive contribution to the improvement of information literacy skills, especially students who are used to searching for information through Google .

However, these efforts cannot simply stop, they must be developed so that a future generation that is “reliable” in the culture of reading, writing, processing, and evaluating information in this digital era can be realized.

The Influence of Digital Literacy on Child and Adolescent Psychology

In Indonesia, the number of internet users is dominated by teenagers, so it is possible that teenagers are the most affected. According to Retnowati (2015, in Pratiwi) good use of the internet can improve the user’s performance, but when it is used badly, it can have negative effects on teenagers.

Examples that often happen nowadays are cases of defamation, bullying, and even prostitution that definitely trigger adolescent depression. Why can this happen?

Because they have not fully understood the consequences of the use of digital media. It is true that they (teenagers) have mastered literacy in the form of the ability to read and write, but they do not yet have digital literacy skills.

In the internet, many users are not shy to insult and even type rude words to other users. That is an example of the negative impact of digital literacy today. The phenomenon, when accepted by teenagers whose psychological conditions are generally not stable, can influence their emotional development in the future.

The inability of teenagers to understand digital literacy can be seen from their actions who immediately make insulting comments when there is negative information, then when there is positive information they immediately share it on their account.

So what should be done so that today’s teenagers are not easily depressed when doing digital literacy with social media? Of course, the role of parents is very important. They should be careful to monitor the behavior of teenagers.

In addition, parents should provide an understanding of digital literacy. Don’t let the advancement of technology, especially the existence of digital literacy, make the psychological state of teenagers disturbed, even to the point of depression. Therefore, let’s be smart internet users! ^^

So that you understand more about digital literacy in this era of globalization, you can read some books or references that discuss digital literacy. Come on, be an agent of change for the future!

Understanding Static Electricity – Power generation or electrical energy is one of the main forms of energy needed by electrical equipment or energy stored in current in amperes (A) and voltage in volts (V), as long as the need consumes electrical energy in watts (W) to move a motor, light a lamp, flow energy to a water heater, cool the ac, or reactivate a mechanical device to produce another form of energy.

Electrical energy powers household appliances, office equipment, industrial machines, trains, street lights, fireplaces, cooking utensils, and more. The energy produced can come from various sources, such as water, petroleum, coal, wind, geothermal, nuclear, solar and others. The basic unit of electrical energy is Joule, while the other is KWh (Kilowatt Hours). Electricity for industry and households is produced from power plants, such as PLTA, PLTN, PLTD (solar), PLTM, PLTS (solar energy), PLTU and others.

Electrical energy is an important necessity in everyday life. Various necessities of life require electricity to continue operating. Some household chores such as ironing, washing, and storing food all require electricity.

For other businesses, such as desks, laptops, computers and printers are often used, which of course are highly dependent on the power produced from electricity. The electricity used comes from the generating station. The electrical energy produced is then transported to homes, schools, factories and offices using conductive cables.

In the science of physics about energy that comes from electricity, it is known that there are two types of electricity, namely static electricity and dynamic electricity, both of which must have significant differences even though they come from the same energy source. Well, this time we will focus more on discussing static electricity. Further discussion on what is the meaning of static electricity? we will review the definition, working method, and its use in life in the discussion below.

Understanding Static Electricity

Static electricity is electricity with a charge in a stationary or static state, unlike electro mobility where the charge is always moving. In a sense, static electricity is an imbalance of electric charge inside or on the surface of things. During this time, the load remains until it disappears when released.

Electricity comes from the Greek word, specifically electron which means (Amber). The word amber itself comes from a petrified resin tree. The nature of this stone to attract small objects after being rubbed, this was later developed by a Greek scientist named Thales of Miletus with experiments that led to the discovery of electric charge

In general, the understanding of static electricity is a group of electric charges in a fixed unit, the amount or balance of electric charges in one unit. Just like when you rub a plastic ruler on your hair, it will have a negative charge, and the hair will have a positive charge.

The release when these two materials are rubbed causes both to be positively charged and negatively charged. Charge is a physical quantity related to electricity and other effects related to matter. Charges that can be neutralized by means of friction show that these charges do not negate each other.

The amount of charge will depend on the lack or excess of the number of electrons, the more an object the greater the charge. According to electron theory, electrons that move from one atom to another are called free electrons, and things that can transfer electrons freely are called conductors.

A static charge is generated whenever two surfaces are joined and separated, and at least one of the surfaces has a high resistance to current (and is therefore an insulator). Static electricity effects are already familiar to most people because people can feel, hear, and even see sparks when the excess charge is neutralized when brought close to a large conductor of electricity (eg: Earth).

The coulomb is a unit of measurement for the magnitude of electric charge. There is negative and positive charge. An excess of electrons in an object makes the object negatively charged, and if the object is positively charged, then the object lacks electrons. If the amount of positive and negative charge on an object is the same, then the object has a neutral charge. 1 electron = -1,6 x 10-19 coulomb 1 proton = -1,6 x 10-19 coulomb.

History of Static Electricity

During the cultural era around the Mediterranean Sea, it was discovered that some objects, such as amber sticks, if rubbed with cat fur, could attract light objects such as fur. around 600 BC. a scientist named Thales conducted an experiment on static electricity, where he found that amber is magnetic unlike minerals, so it does not need to be rubbed. At that time, Thales had not really observed the magnetic effect of gravity, until scientific developments proved the relationship between magnetism and electricity.

The history of the discovery of electricity begins with the research of a Greek philosopher named Thales from Miletus around 600 BC. At that time, Thales discovered a natural stone that was able to attract objects made of iron (now called magnets). He continued experimenting with other stones until he found a point at the conclusion that if amber is rubbed with wool, it can attract fragments of light.

This happens because amber (in Greek for electron) carries an electrical charge, or static electricity as it is commonly used today. In short, Thales can be called the father of the inventor of static electricity. For the following centuries, electricity remained an interesting topic.

It was only in 1600 that the English scientist William Gilbert discovered that amber is not the only object capable of attracting light. Gilbert also mentioned this event with a new Latin term, electrius, which was later absorbed into English by electric and electricity.

Later, scientists such as Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray and CF du Fay also conducted research related to electricity. A new breakthrough finally came in the 18th century, when Benjamin Franklin did extensive research on electricity.

An American scientist experimented by attaching a metal key to a kite string during a thunderstorm and discovered that electricity was equivalent to lightning. After this historic discovery, people were eager to try harnessing the power of electricity in a very simple way to light their homes.

How Static Electricity Works

Understanding Static electricity is the result of the accumulation of electricity that occurs when two non-metallic objects rub against each other. This electrification usually occurs when charged particles move from one place to another. For example, when combing, the hair will not feel like it is lifted towards the comb.

There are three ways of working to give an energy charge to static electricity, namely, friction, conduction, and induction.

1. Friction

Which of the following objects becomes electrified by rubbing with other objects? For example, some things can be statically charged, such as silk and glass. Glass is positively charged while silk is negatively charged. This process occurs when electrons from the glass are transferred to the silk fabric.

2. Conduction

The way to make things conduct electricity is by conduction. The definition of conduction is the transfer of electrically charged objects to non-charged objects. In this way, things that previously had no electrical charge will gain charge.

3. Induction

Induction is a way of giving an electric charge to things. In a sense, induction separates the charges in the conductor. The trick is to bring a charged object closer to another object that is in a neutral state. This conductive event is often found when we study the charge of an object using an electroscope.

Static Electricity Formula

There are several formulas that are commonly used to solve problems involving static electricity. We will describe the formula below:

1. Coulomb force

Coulomb force is the magnitude of the electric force that occurs between two electrically charged objects. Different amounts of electric current will attract and the same amount of electric current will repel. Therefore, the magnitude of the pulling or repelling force can be made according to the equation: F = k q1.q2 / r2 Description: F = total force (N) k = coefficient (9 x 109 Nm2 / C2) j = distance between loads (m) q1 and q2 = charge of each particle (C)

2. Electric field

An electric field is an area around a charged particle that is subjected to an electric force (Coulomb force). The direction of the electric field is such that the positive charge moves away from the source charge. When the negative charge moves inward. The charger that produces electricity is called the source load. At the same time, another load placed under the influence of the electric field from the source load is called a test load. Here is the formula: E=k Q/r2 or E=F/q Description: E = electric field strength (N/C) F = coulomb force (N) r = distance from the test charge to the charge source (m) Q = source charge (C) q = test load (C)

3. Potential

Potential energy is the work per unit charge required to move the charge from one point to another. The formula is: V = k Q / r Description: V = potential (volts) Q = source charge (C) k = coefficient (9 x 109 Nm2 / C2) r = distance to the charge source (m) )

4. Potential Electricity

The energy or effort required to move an electrical charge from one point to another. The following formula is: Ep = k q1.q2 / r Description: Ep = potential energy of the test load k = coefficient (9 x 109 Nm2 / C2) r = distance to the source of the load (m) q1 and q2 = electricity product of each particle (c ).

5. Capacitor

A capacitor is one of the electrical devices used to store energy in a short time so that it can be released quickly. The formula is: C = ???? oA / d Description: C = capacitance of the capacitor (Farad or f) q = charge between two parts (C) V = potential difference between two parts (voltA = cross-section of the room (m2)? ??? = allowed dielectric of the material

Example of Static Electricity

There are several examples of electricity that we can find in everyday life, apart from the friction of a plastic ruler on the head. Whether done consciously or unconsciously, examples of static electricity are as follows.

Common examples of static electricity in everyday life are:

1. Lightning

So what is the relationship between static electricity and lightning? Therefore, lightning can occur due to the transfer of electrons. When the sky is in a state of excess electrons, lightning also appears towards areas with fewer electrons. In order for the excess electrons to be immediately transferred, the lightning finally finds the object closest to the cloud. This is why lightning often strikes large objects. It can be said that lightning is an example of static electricity hazards.

2. When combing hair

The hair unconsciously stands up according to the movement of the comb, which can occur due to the strength of the interaction between the comb and the hair.

3. A silk cloth is rubbed on a glass rod

This will cause the two objects to attract each other, this is due to the jump of electrons from the glass rod to the silk cloth.

4. A plastic ruler is rubbed on the woolen cloth

Both objects are neutrally charged but when rubbed together electrons jump from the cloth to the ruler.

5. Bring your hand to the TV screen that has just been turned off

Note that hairs will appear on your arms or hands, this is due to the presence of static electricity.

6. In the nervous system

It turns out that electricity also flows in the human body. Evidence of this can be seen from the arrangement of the central nervous system that regulates all activities that occur in the human body. The central nervous system is the body’s coordination system consisting of millions of nerve cells or neurons.

A neuron is the smallest structure in the nervous system, which functions to transmit electrical charges in the form of ions from dendrites to axons. Thus, it can be concluded that there is electricity in the human body.

7. Electricity in Animals

Electrical properties can also be found in certain animals. Where, there are animals that are able to produce electricity and there are also animals that are able to take advantage of the electric current that surrounds them. Examples of animals with electrical properties include electric eels, electric rays, and hammerhead sharks.

8. Use of Electricity in the Environment

In our daily life we ​​cannot separate the use of static electricity. This can be seen from several applications that can be applied in human life such as lightning rods, electrostatic precipitators for car paint, photocopiers, laser printers and many others.

Utilization of Static Electricity in Life

1. Paint the car

When the paint is sprayed, the fine paint particles become charged as they rub against the air. The painted vehicle receives a charge opposite to the paint particles, so the paint droplets will be attracted to the vehicle.

This method is useful if the vehicle has an uneven surface. Because the paint particles will stick and follow the existing electric field.

As a result, paint drops will cover all parts of the vehicle that may be hidden from the spray layer. Thus, this method will make the paint layer evenly and reach hidden places.

2. Photocopier

The photocopier was first designed by an American physicist named Chester F. Carlston. This machine uses the induction load principle as well as the Coulomb force.

The main part of the photocopier is the photoconductor plate. This panel does not transmit electricity when in a dark room. The new sheet will conduct electricity when exposed to light.

Initially, the photoconductor plate is induced by moving a negatively charged conductor along its surface. Therefore, a plate is formed with an induced positive charge.

If the paper to be copied is illuminated, the reflected light will hit the photoconductive plate which already contains an induction charge. As a result, the electric charge formed exactly as it is on the paper is reproduced.

Negatively charged ink is sprayed onto the plate. The ink is then transferred to another type of paper to make a photocopy. This layer of paper will be heated so that the ink adheres strongly. Static electricity affects some electronic devices.

3. Inkjet printers

This printer works by spraying fine ink particles onto the surface of the paper. With several injection points, the material to be printed will show its shape.

However, to do so, the printer must control the position of the falling ink jet by applying an electrostatic force. Small droplets of ink are charged as they are sprayed through small channels in the print head.

Then the particle will pass through two metal plates. If both plates receive an electric potential, the ink drop will become charged.

By adjusting the load on the plate, the printer controls the direction in which the filled ink drops fall. If the ink particles are positively charged, they will be attracted to the negatively charged plate and repelled by the positively charged plate. Thus, the ink drops will be directed upwards.

4. Smoke collector

Smoke collectors are useful for reducing air pollution from factory chimneys. The use of this device is achieved by installing two metal with large opposite markings on the installed factory chimney.

Smoke particles flowing through the chimney will be induced to have an induced charge. The resulting charge is positive and negative.

These smoke particles will attract each other to form larger and heavier particles. The increased weight will prevent particles from flying with the smoke. Particles will fall to the bottom of the chimney.

In addition to fusing together, charged smoke particles are also attracted to active metals in the chimney.

These particles then aggregate on the metal and form larger clumps. Therefore, the mass is easy to clean and can reduce air pollution.

Conclusion

A short discussion about the meaning of static electricity Not just the definition, but how the early history of the discovery of static electricity was found, the formula of static electricity, how static electricity works, examples of static electricity and its use in everyday life.

Definition of Economics – Economics as a science that studies the use of limited natural resources in the fulfillment of unlimited human needs. Economics is also a science that studies human efforts in achieving prosperity. See a more complete explanation of Economics starting from its Definition, Purpose, Areas and Principles as follows:

A. Understanding of Economics

Economics is the science that examines market financial behavior ranging from interest rates, exchange rates, business cycles, international trade, government policies to the efficiency of natural resource use which you can learn in the book Introduction to Economics below.

Economics also studies the income of individuals, companies, countries and stock prices to the imbalance of the economy. By studying economics will help a person in understanding how the economic behavior of a certain society, give input in decision-making, give an understanding of the potential and limitations of the economic policy taken, to increase human sensitivity to various economic and global problems.

Here are other definitions of Economics according to experts:

1. Alfred Marshall

Through his book entitled The Principle of Economics, Alfred Marshall thinks that economics is a science that studies human actions both individually and collectively and their connection in the use of material goods.

2. HJ Davenport

In the book “Economics of Enterprise” , HJ Davenport reveals economics as a Science that handles various problems from the point of departure of prices. Economics is also a tool that studies how the level of production can be increased so that the standard of living of the community will automatically increase as well.

3. M. Manullang

According to M. Manullang, economics is a science that studies how to meet the desires of people or society in order to achieve prosperity or conditions where people can meet their needs, both in the form of goods and services.

4. Oscar Langen

Economics according to Oscar Langen is a science that studies the administration of various resources, both small and large resources, which are then analyzed so that they can be reused for human life to the maximum and best.

5. John Stuart Mill

According to John Stuart Mill, economics studies the various intricacies of billing and production. Not only that, according to Stuart, economics also discusses various production and wealth distribution activities.

6. Prof. PA Samuelson

In the book Economics: An Introductory Analysis Prof. PA Samuelson explained that economics is a study that studies how people make choices by using limited resources which are then further processed to produce various types of goods and services to then be distributed again to various levels of society.

7. Louis Cantori

According to Louis Cantori, economics viewed from an Islamic point of view is economics based on various Islamic rules. For example, about the problem that guarantees the rotation of property owned by an individual.

8. Suherman Rosyidi

Suherman Rosyidi as a Philosopher of Indonesian origin thinks that economics is a branch of science that provides an understanding of the symptoms that arise in the community in its efforts to meet the needs of life or its efforts to achieve prosperity.

9. Adam Smith

Often referred to as classical economic theory. According to Adam Smith Economics as a branch of science that studies human behavior in its efforts to allocate various limited resources to achieve certain goals..

10. Mankiw

Mankiw believes that a person who masters Economics will improve his understanding of the various potentials and limitations of economic policy. Economics also studies how an individual then interacts with each other.

B, Branches of Economics

Economics as a science that studies various human activities in order to meet all the needs of life. In order to achieve this prosperity, humans will then perform economic activities such as consumption, production, and distribution. This will then give rise to various economic problems, namely the imbalance of unlimited human needs with the increasingly limited amount of goods or production. Here are some divisions of the types of economics that you need to know:

1. Applied Economics

Applied economics is a field of economic science that applies economic theory and principles in real situations to predict possible outcomes that focus on the practical use of economic science, especially for individuals in decision-making, policies, guidelines, or certain standards with the aim of overcoming problems that occur. Economics usually uses case studies and statistics. For example in the sphere of enterprise, monetary economy, and banking.

Monetary Economics is a part of economics that is used to study the nature, function, and influence of money in economic activities that you can learn in the book Monetary Economics: Indonesian Case Study.

2. Descriptive Economics

Descriptive economics is an economic science that describes the state of the economy in society at that time. Descriptive economics itself displays data from various facts and phenomena that occur. Economics examines various images, and conditions of the economy. The data collected is variable and can be in the form of numbers, graphics, curves, or other forms of presentation that you can understand the meaning of in the Descriptive Statistics book: Vivi Silvia.

In Indonesia, this economic science is then used by BPS (Badan Pusat Statistik) to provide an overview of the Indonesian economic conditions both macro and micro. The application of this economic knowledge was also used when dissecting the monetary crisis that occurred in Indonesia in 1998.

3. Macro Economics

4. Microeconomics

Microeconomics is an economic science that studies things that are limited to an economic activity only. Including the base price and the highest price that needs to be set in order to maintain a balance between demand and supply. Because if there is a monopolist in the market then it will narrow the business opportunities of new players, so that the entrepreneurial spirit of the community will also decrease.

Microeconomics also discusses various aspects of individuals such as the behavior of buyers or consumers as well as the behavior of individual producers. You can learn this in the book Micro Economics An Introduction.

5. Public Economics

As in the example of the function of the government through the point of view of the micro economy in the book Public Economy by Bambang Suprayitno.

6. Monetary Economics

This knowledge also helps in the implementation of a country’s monetary policy. This knowledge studies a policy issued by the government to regulate the financial stability of a country. Monetary Economics also learns about money, banking, and various other financial institutions. Aspects studied range from inflation, the amount of money in circulation, and bank interest rates.

It can be concluded that monetary economics talks about how money works which you can learn through the book Monetary Economics: Indonesian Case Study.

7. Economics of Human Resources

Human Resource Economics (HR) is an economic science that studies labor production factors, starting from job opportunities, labor quality, and wage determination. Its scope ranges from population dynamics, employment, employment structure, informal-formal sector, population transition, population mobility and migration, labor demand and supply, child labor, workforce planning and population and economic development.

The Economics of Human Resources book: In the Perspective of Development below can be used as a reference for those of you who want to learn more about economics.

8. International Economics

International economics is an economic science that studies the occurrence of economic activities between countries, for example at the World Trade Organization (WTO); International Monetary Fund (IMF); and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).

This knowledge also has an important role in the international business cycle. In addition, the theory of the international economy itself is progressing and developing according to the book International Economy by Mahyus Ekananda.

Matters studied in international economics ranging from international trade, international balance of payments and international trade balance. Economics which will then also examine various international political events. Economic activity, and current economic problems, whether it is the latest developments regarding Brexit proposed by the United Kingdom from the European Union or the latest tariff changes in the United States. This discipline also brings together various principles and approaches of macroeconomics and microeconomics.

9. Regional Economic Science

Regional economics is an economic science that studies the economic interaction between a region and its development with the aim of increasing the level of the economy in a region. Regional economic knowledge itself can also be used as a medium that will help the regional government to analyze the economic problems that occur and then make policies as a solution.

You can learn the theory and practice in economics through the book Regional Economics Theory and Practice by Mudrajad Kuncoro.

10. Industrial Economics

Some topics related to economics such as market structure, market competition behavior, monopolies-oligopolies can be learned in the book Industrial Economics by Muhammad Teguh.

12. Economics of Natural Resources

Economics that studies the problem and allocation of natural resources optimally viewed from an economic point of view covering positive and negative externalities.

C. Field of Economics

Economics is divided into two by Samuelson and Nordhaus, namely microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics is an economy that studies the behavior of companies and their consumers, as well as their relationship in determining prices and goods or services to be traded, and the quantity of input factors.

Some aspects of analysis in microeconomics include Benefit Analysis, Cost Analysis, Supply Theory, Demand Theory, Elasticity, Production Theory, Price Theory. The scope of this economy examines more about producers and consumers. In addition, microeconomics also plays a role in making policies that are used as a foundation in planning various company policies in the management of their resources, for example price and wage management.

While according to Mankiw (2014), microeconomics is a science that studies how households and companies make decisions and are able to interact in the market. Samuelson and Nordhaus (2010) explained that macroeconomics first appeared when the revolution titled “General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money” by John Maynard Keynes was published, the theory discussed the impact of the business cycle with high levels of unemployment and inflation. Macro economics helps in determining consumption and total investment, which is how banks then manage their customers’ money and interest.

D. Principles of Economics

The principle of economic science is used as a guide to achieve a rational comparison between the sacrifice and the result or in other words get the biggest profit with the smallest sacrifice, or with a certain sacrifice and then get the maximum possible result, the economic principle will also make a person minimize the loss that he suffering Here is a breakdown of the principles of economics that you need to know:

1. Economic Principles in Production Activities

2. Economic Principles in Distribution Activities

3. Economic Principles in Consumption Activities

E. Economic Theory and Model

In economics, economic law is a cause-and-effect relationship between various economic activities that are interconnected, for example the law of demand and supply. Economic theory is also used as a basic summary as well as used as a basis for the implementation of various economic policies.

It is these theories that then eventually form an economic model that helps explain an economic event. One example of the economic model itself is on the production curve that produces various concepts of diminishing returns and opportunity costs that can be applied.

Economic method as a procedure taken to achieve certain goals is generally used to solve various economic problems based on certain theories. An example is in the decision-making method with deductive and inductive methods (decision-making based on data collected from the reality of human life.

The reality is then experienced by families, individuals, and local communities. This reality is also studied to find efforts to fulfill needs) Meanwhile, the deductive method works on the basis of provisions, laws, or general principles that have been previously tested for truth. This method determines the steps for solving problems in accordance with the principles, principles, laws, and provisions that apply in economics.

Actions, Motives, and Economic Principles.

Economic action refers to every human step to meet his needs. This includes production, consumption, and distribution, while the economic motive is the force that moves people to perform economic actions.

Not only that in the economic cycle, of course there are also economic principles that are used as thinking to achieve certain goals with the least possible sacrifice. So much information about Economics Starting from the Definition, Purpose, Field to the Principles. Hope it’s useful!

Definition of dynamic electricity – Human activities mostly depend on electricity. A variety of household furniture mostly requires electricity to be used. Electricity is something charged due to the presence or absence of electrons. It happened as a result of things rubbing against each other.

While dynamic electricity is one of the classifications in electrical energy. Electricity can be interpreted as a condition of certain subatomic particles, such as protons and electrons that cause attraction and repulsion between the two.

In general, electricity can be understood as a source of energy channeled through cables. Electric current arises because the electric charge flows from the positive end of the channel or cable to the negative end. Electricity is divided into two types, namely static electricity and dynamic electricity.

Human needs in terms of electricity show that dynamic electricity is very necessary in our lives. This shows that the phenomenon of dynamic electricity plays an important role in our lives. Equipment such as televisions, refrigerators, rice cookers , computers, radios cannot turn on by themselves without being connected to electricity.

Other examples can be found in flashlights, wall clocks, or toy cars that use batteries. The energy in the battery is the driving force of the dynamo (electric motor) in cars. While the battery in the flashlight creates a flow of electrons that work to light the lamp inside.

Dynamic electricity is electrical charges that flow or move. Reported from Circuit Globe , dynamic electricity is electrons that move in one direction or back and forth in a conductor or what is commonly referred to as electric current. Dynamic electricity is a group of electrons that continuously flow from one point to another. The flow of electricity is similar to the flow of a flowing river, so dynamic electricity is called electric current.

Electric current is the flow of positively charged particles that pass through a conductor or transmitter from a high potential to a low potential. Electric current can be analogized to the flow of water that occurs due to the difference in height. Water can flow from high places to low places. Likewise with dynamic electric currents that can move with potential energy differences.

Dynamic electricity is electricity that moves or is called electric current. In dynamic electricity, the flow of charged particles in the form of electric current can produce electrical energy. Electric current flows from a point of higher potential to a point of lower potential, when the two points are connected in a closed circuit. This explanation is included in the IPA Class IX Electricity book .

The formula for electric current is I = Q/t where I is the electric current, Q is the electric charge, and t is time. The largest and smallest unit of electric current is the Ampere (A).

Quoting from the Automotive Basic Technology book , dynamic electricity can be said to be the state of free electron flow that comes from electrons that have separated from their respective atoms. Electrons will move through an object that has the properties of a conductor.

When free electrons move in a fixed direction, then this dynamic electricity is called direct current (DC) electricity. When the direction of movement of the amount of current is periodic over time, then this dynamic electricity is called alternating current (AC). Dynamic electricity is electricity that can move or flow in an electrical network. The electric current is the flow of electrical charge that passes through the transmission wire every unit of time.

Dynamic electricity can also be explained in detail as follows:

1. Dynamic electricity is the flow of electric charge through a conductor (electric current).
2. Dynamic electricity is electricity that moves or flows in an electrical network.
3. Dynamic electricity is produced from a power source or power plant.
4. Dynamic electricity occurs because of direct current and alternating current.
5. Electric current can only turn on in a closed electrical circuit.

Electric Current

Based on the book Learning Concepts of Electricity and Magnets, electric current is divided into two, namely:

1. Direct Current (DC)

Direct current or direct current (DC) is a current whose current is always fixed and constant all the time and has only one direction, which is positive to negative. DC electricity generating sources are divided into two, namely:

a. Primary Elements

A primary element is an element that cannot be reloaded when its load is exhausted. When the electrical voltage of the element runs out, it can no longer be used. An example of a primary element is a dry battery.

b. Secondary Elements

A secondary element is an element that can be reloaded if its load is exhausted. This causes the electric current to flow back to the element. Examples of secondary elements are accumulators and rechargeable batteries.

2. Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current or alternating current (AC) is a current that in its management moves back and forth, both in direction and magnitude. The source of AC electric current cannot be determined as positive and negative poles even though the electricity also has two ends of the transmitter or two ends of the channel.

This is because the AC electric current will flow alternately between the two ends, sometimes being in a positive or negative position. Meanwhile, the number of back-and-forth flows traveled in each second is called frequency.

An example of an AC electric current source is PLN electricity which has a frequency of 60 Hz. That is, in every second, the current has flowed back and forth 60 times. The electricity in the house also includes AC electricity. Other examples of AC power sources are dynamo and electric generator.

Ohm’s Law

As explained in the book Things you need to know about Electricity, electric current can flow in an electrical circuit if there is a potential difference in the closed circuit. The relationship between electric current strength and electric potential difference was first studied by Georg Simon Ohm. The results of his research are now known as Ohm’s Law.

Ohm’s law explains that the connection between the potential difference or voltage of a current source, the strength of the electric current, and the resistance of a network. Ohm’s law states that if the voltage in a circuit is increased, then the current will increase, and vice versa. For example, when the voltage is doubled, the current will also double.

That is, the current is proportional to the voltage. If the voltage remains constant, then a smaller conductor resistance will produce a larger current because the strength of the current is inversely proportional to the electrical resistance. Based on Ohm’s Law, the formula for electric current strength is I = V/R . I is the current, V is the voltage, and R is the resistance.

V is the symbol of the potential difference with the unit of Volts, R is the resistance with the unit of Ohm (Ω), and I is the current strength with the unit of Ampere.

Types of Dynamic Electric Currents

As reported by Solar Energy , electric current is divided into two, namely direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC).

Direct Current

Direct current (DC) is a type of electric current when electrons flow in only one direction. An example of the type of dynamic electric current is the current produced by photovoltaic panels.

Alternating Electric Current

Alternating current (AC) is when electrons change direction repeatedly, starting from positive to negative. Alternating current or AC is a type of electricity that is often used in the homes we live in.

Dynamic Electrical Characteristics

1. Dynamic electricity consists of electric charge that moves to produce an electric current.
2. To keep the load flowing, agents are needed to do the work needed to keep the load moving.
3. In the International System of Units, charge is measured in coulombs (C) and current in coulombs/second, a unit called ampere (A). A current of 1 A means that the cross-sectional area of ​​the conductor flows 1 C every second.
4. Electric current needs a closed path to maintain its flow. This strip is called a circuit and must be closed, if the current flowing through the strip is open, it will stop.
5. All moving charges produce a magnetic field, including current-carrying wires.
6. In principle, the direction of the current is the movement followed by the electrons in the conductor leaving the negative pole of the battery and going towards the positive.

Example of Dynamic Electricity Application

Every electrical energy, be it dynamic electricity or static electricity has a role in our daily life. Here are some examples of the application of dynamic electricity according to the Read Physics website , among which are:

1. Electrical Network

Dynamic electricity is present in the current that circulates in any electrical circuit, for example in things around us, such as flashlights, electric stoves, telephones, and all types of equipment that we use.

2. Electric Transmission System

The electrical energy transmission system uses dynamic electrical energy in the form of alternating current, because it is easier to conduct over long distances.

3. Atmospheric Electricity

Electric current is produced in the earth’s atmosphere, especially in the ionosphere, ultraviolet radiation from the sun comes from charged particles that flow in large circuits of electric current at high altitudes.

4. Terrestrial Electricity

Electric current also circulates in the earth’s crust as a result of chemical reactions that occur in the soil layer. Earth has its own magnetic field.

One of them is that the flow of molten iron in the core of the planet produces an electric current, and this is responsible for creating the earth’s magnetic field.

5. Aurora in the Polar Regions

The polar aurora is a region of the night sky with bright and beautiful colors, which appears near the poles. This phenomenon is caused by dynamic electricity, because the flow of charged particles continuously comes from the sun, which is known as the solar wind.

When these particles approach the Earth, this magnetic field deflects them, thus emitting light and creating a luminous effect called an aurora.

6. Functions of the Nervous System

The electric current in our body can process stimulation from the outside so that it can be received by the five senses and then transformed into information through the nervous system and travels to the brain with electrical impulses.

In this case, a small electric current in our body is needed to carry information. In the same way, muscle movement depends on electrical impulses that run from the brain that carry movement orders to our body.

7. Defibrillator

Dynamic electricity can be very damaging to the human body, a current of 1 A can be fatal. But if used correctly, electric current helps save lives, as in the case of defibrillators.

A defibrillator is a device that passes through a large capacitor, then conducts dynamic electricity to the heart, to help restore rhythm after a heart attack.

8. Battery Use on Laptops

A laptop can turn on and work because there is a battery inside the laptop. The flow of electrons from the battery moves to the laptop, this flow of electrons will stop flowing until the laptop battery is used up and finally the laptop dies and does not work.

9. Use of Batteries to Light a Flashlight

A lamp connected to a battery with a conductor wire. This causes the flow of electrons from the battery to move to the lamp through the conductor wire and cause the lamp to light up brightly.

10. Use of Electric Bells

An electric bell that is connected to the battery also with a conductor wire. The appearance of the flow of electrons from the battery moving to the bell through the transmission wire can cause the electric bell to ring. Batteries have a positive pole and a negative pole.

The positive pole is the end of the battery with a small protrusion. The negative pole is the flat end of the battery. When the two poles are connected with a cable, it will produce electrons flowing from the positive pole to the negative pole.

11. Use of Power Bank

The phenomenon of dynamic electricity can actually be found in a power bank. Through the power storage device, electricity will flow to the cell phone battery. At that moment, there was an electric current.

12. Use of Batteries to Move Cars

Another example of dynamic electricity is the use of batteries to move cars. Similar to the working principle of batteries in other types of goods, electricity will flow when the switch on cars is turned on. Both ends of the battery that contains electricity will be connected to the electric motor, so that the cars can move.

Benefits of Dynamic Electricity

Dynamic electricity is a type of electricity that is often found in everyday life. However, not a few question the use of dynamic electricity to support various activities. Collected from the same source, here are four benefits of dynamic electricity for everyday life.

1. As a source of energy

Electricity is known as a source of energy. Because electricity is an energy producer. Therefore, electricity is often used as an energy source for various types of household appliances that use electricity.

2. Light Producer

Electricity through lamps can function as a light producer. Because, there is a change in electrical energy into light.

3. Heat Producer

Adapted from the book Getting to Know Electrical Safety by Andi Tiara, dynamic electricity can also be used as a heat generator and applied to devices that use heating elements. As for how it works, electric current flows through the nickel to produce heat.

4. Motion Generator

Electricity in general is also useful for producing motion on some specific types of things. The way it works is the flow of electricity is directed to the driving motor that produces movement.

Basically, the electricity we use today has many benefits. In fact, it can be said that almost all life in this world depends on electricity. Thus the discussion about the meaning of dynamic electricity , hopefully all the discussions that have been explained above can provide benefits for Reader.

Meaning of License – In the business world we have often heard the term license. Whether it’s a business in the form of selling goods or offering a service, licensing is so important. Why is it so important to have a license in the business world?

Simply put, a license can protect the business you run. So that you will also better understand what a license is. Then you can read the explanation in this article.

This article will explain everything related to the license. Ranging from the meaning of the license, benefits to the types of the license itself.

Definition of License

Before going into a deeper discussion, of course the first thing we will discuss first is the meaning of the license itself. A license is the granting of permission to carry out a production process, both in the form of goods and services.

Where the product or service has previously been patented by its creator for the first time. In addition, licenses are often referred to as the granting of permission to intellectual property. Where later the licensor will give a permit (license) to the recipient in order to be able to use it for production or service needs.

In the license there is also a term license agreement. A license agreement can be done for two or more parties. Where later one party will be the licensor and the other party will be the recipient of the license.

Later, the licensee can easily take advantage of the permission to produce goods or services legally. The licensor is usually referred to as the licensor. While the license recipient is referred to as the licensee.

Types of Licenses

Once you know the meaning of license. Then the next is an explanation about the types of licenses. Where actually licenses are divided into several types. Each type of license always has its own importance.

Therefore, for those of you who want to make a license, it’s best to know the types of licenses first so that you don’t make a mistake in making the license.

1. HKI License (Intellectual Property Rights)

The first type of license is HKI or intellectual property rights license. Among other types of licenses. Maybe you will also hear this type of license more often.

In this type of IPR license there are some rules that apply. For example, such as the territory of use, renewal and some other rules that have previously been determined by the owner of the license.

A simple example is a license to computer software. Where later the licensor can grant rights to the user of their software.

2. Bulk License

Next there is a type of mass license, most of this type of license will be easier to find on computer software. In detail, the type of mass license written on computer software is UELA or End User License Agreement.

Simply put, the type of mass license is the granting of a license from the licensee to an individual in order to be able to use the computer software.

3. License of Goods and Services

Further there is a license for goods and services. Those who hold this license can grant permits or licenses to individuals and other companies. The purpose of doing this is so that individuals or other companies can sell products and services that are under the license holder.

Both individuals and companies can sell products or services from the main licensee without having to fear any legal claims.

4. License of Artwork or Character

The same is the case with goods and services licenses. This type of license for artwork or characters can also be given to other parties in order to be able to sell a product that has artwork or characters in it.

5. Education License

Finally there is a license in the field of education. This type of license is usually in the form of an academic degree. For example, a university is a licensee. The university can give its license to its students so that they can gain knowledge in a certain period of time at the university. In addition, a license in the field of education can also be given in the form of an award.

Well those are some types of licenses that you often find in everyday life. Further, Reader can learn more about the advantages of having a license.

Licensing Advantages

It should be known that having a license also has some advantages, you know. Both for goods and services and other types of licenses have their own advantages. Well, if indeed you don’t really know what the advantages of the license are. Then the explanation below can help you.

1. Those who receive a license can use the trademark legally.
2. The licensor will get a royalty that has previously been agreed upon the amount to be paid.
3. Licensors no longer need to incur additional costs in order to commercialize their products.
4. The licensee will find it easier to gain trust from consumers. Especially if the brand they use is already famous.

Lack of License

Licensing does not only have advantages. But the license also has some drawbacks. Well, so that you can also better understand what are the shortcomings of the license. Here is a complete explanation about it.

1. When the license has been sold, then the previous license owner has lost complete control over the product.
2. Those who receive a license also have the risk of product sales.
3. Although you can get royalties, everything takes time.
4. When the agreement has been violated by those who received the license. So there is a high possibility of a competition. Of course, this can also threaten the legitimacy of the license owner’s trademark.

License Legal Policy

License also has its own legal basis. In 2018, in July to be exact, the government issued new regulations related to license agreements, namely Government Regulation No. 36 of 2018 on the Registration of Intellectual Property License Agreements (PP 36/2018).

This license has been regulated by other legal regulations that are included in the field of intellectual property rights. It has also been mentioned in Article 2 paragraph (1) of PP 36/2018 that registration of licenses can be done on intellectual property objects in several areas such as:

1. Copyright and related rights
2. Patent
3. Brand
4. Industrial design
5. Integrated circuit layout design
6. Trade secret
7. Plant varieties

Prohibitions Contained in the License Agreement

In the license agreement there are several prohibitions as explained in Article 6 PP 36/2018. Where in the license agreement it is not allowed to do or have the content of some things like the explanation below.

1. License agreements made can harm Indonesia’s economy as well as Indonesia’s national interests.
2. Licensing agreements can create restrictions that may hinder the ability of Indonesians to transfer, master and develop technology.
3. The license agreement may result in unfair competition.
4. A license agreement that is made contrary to legal regulations, religious values, morality and public order.

From the explanation of some points above, you can make sure again before making a license agreement. Rechecking the contents of the license agreement file will make it easier for you to avoid various risks of violations.

Creation of License Agreement

The first thing you must know before making a license agreement is the expiration date of the Intellectual Property Rights. Where it is very important because you cannot make or accept a license agreement as long as the Intellectual Property Rights that have been licensed have expired and have been deleted.

In addition, the process of making a license agreement must be in Indonesian. Then what if a license agreement is made with a foreign party? License agreements can still be done with foreign parties as long as the foreign language used also has an Indonesian translation. This has also been regulated in Article 4 paragraph (2) PP 36/2018.

In Article 7 paragraph (2) PP 36/2018 has also provided a guide related to the contents of the license agreement. Some of the contents that should be contained in the license are as follows.

1. Date, month, year, and place the agreement was signed.
2. Name and address of licensor and licensee.
3. Object of the license agreement.
4. The terms of the license, whether exclusive or non-exclusive, including sublicense.
5. Duration of the license agreement.
6. Territory of validity of the license agreement.
7. The party that pays the annual fee for the patent.

Registration of License Agreement

Making a license agreement is arguably not as simple as when you make a cooperation agreement that only requires signatures from both parties. However, the creation of a license agreement requires several processes first.

In Article 10 paragraph (1) of PP 36/2018 it has been explained that in making a license agreement you must submit a written application to the Minister through the Directorate General of Intellectual Property using Indonesian.

Later, the application can be made through electronic or non-electronic media. In addition, in order for the submitted application to be stronger, there are also some requirements that must be completed first.

Some of the requirements to complete the application for making a license agreement are as follows.

1. Copy of License Agreement;
2. Official Citation of Patent Certificate, Trademark Certificate, Industrial Design Certificate, Integrated Circuit Layout Design Certificate, proof of ownership of Inventions or Related Rights, or proof of ownership of licensed Trade Secrets;
3. Power of Attorney, if the application is submitted by Power of Attorney; and
4. Proof of payment of fees.

Term of License Agreement

As in the form of an agreement in general that has a valid period. The license agreement also has a validity period. The period of validity of the license agreement depends on the period of the license agreement that has been agreed upon by the parties concerned.

According to Article 17 paragraph (2) of PP 36/2018, when the validity period of the license agreement has ended. Then you can apply for re-registration as long as the license agreement will also be renewed or followed up during its validity.

The difference between a license and a franchise

Although it looks the same between license and franchise. However, the two actually have differences that are quite prominent. Compared to license, maybe you hear the term franchise more.

However, for the difference between the two, either license or franchise, you can read the full explanation below.

1. Definition of License and Franchise

From the meaning, both license and franchise have differences. Franchise itself is an agreement or bond between two or more parties. Where later one of the parties can grant a benefit right and use the right from the existing intellectual property.

Simply put, a franchise is a grant of authority for a brand or product so that it can be resold according to an agreement or agreement that has been made previously. In addition, the franchise process cannot be done casually. There must be a notary and have approval from the Ministry of Law and Human Rights.

As for the license itself, it is the granting of a permit so that production actions can be carried out both for products and services. Which products and services have been patented by the first inventor.

From the explanation above it can be concluded that franchise is more towards consumption. As for the license itself, it is more directed to the production process.

2. License and Franchise Legal Policy

Next, in terms of legal basis, both licenses and franchises have different legal bases. The legal basis of franchise is article 5 of government regulation 42/2007. Where the content is to regulate the personal data of the parties, types of intellectual property rights, business activities, rights and obligations of each party, facilities to marketing provided by the franchisor to the recipient, the duration of the agreement, compensation payment procedures, up to extension and termination procedures agreement.

Then for the basis of license law is government regulation 36/2018. Where the rules used have content about the recording of intellectual property license agreements. The content regulates copyright and related rights, patents, trademarks, industrial designs and layouts, and trade secrets.

3. Rights and Obligations

Both franchise and license both have different rights and obligations. In franchise there is the term franchisor which is used for the owner or franchisor. While the term franchisee is the term given to those franchisees.

Those who become franchisors have an obligation to provide names, recipes, products and various matters related to the sale of franchises in accordance with the agreement that has been made previously.

While those who receive a franchise have the authority to use brands, products and recipes from the grantor in order to get results. Then for the obligation on the part of the franchisee is to provide the company so that the franchise agreement can take place.

Then for the license itself there is a term licensor or creator is a person or a group who discovers or creates a product that has special properties. Creations from the licensor have various forms. Starting from art, the field of science, literature that is born from inspiration, ability, thought to imagination that is created in real form.

Then there is also the term licensee or copyright holder. Where the licensee is the party that legally receives the copyright from the licensor. Simply put, the obligation of the licensor is to grant a license to the licensee in order to be able to produce a product or service.

Which standards and quality have been determined by the licensor. Then for the licensee himself, he must produce and sell using copyrighted brand products and give royalties in accordance with the previous agreement.

That’s some explanation about the meaning of the license and other things related to the license that you can read in full above. At least by reading the explanation above, it will be easier for you to make a license agreement. 

Definition of Organic Waste, Types, Characteristics, and examples of organic waste – Waste is one of the big problems in every country. In fact, over time, the amount of waste has not decreased, especially organic waste. Do you know what organic waste actually is? 

Organic waste is material waste or garbage that can be recycled and comes from living things, such as food waste, waste from living things, or plant waste.

In other words, organic waste is waste material or garbage obtained from production processes or activities, both activities in the household and industrial fields. This organic waste is waste or garbage that is easily decomposed through several natural processes.

Why can it be easily decomposed?

That’s because organic waste contains chemical substances that can be said to be stable so that this organic waste will be more easily buried or settled in the ground, lakes, rivers, even the sea.

This type of organic waste decomposes faster in a short period of time until it finally decomposes into a small substance, but does not cause an odor. However, organic waste will cause unpleasant odors, even diseases if not managed properly.

For that reason, often the manufacture of fertilizer utilizes material from organic waste to be used as compost.

When viewed from the type, organic waste is divided into two, namely wet organic waste and dry organic waste. For a complete explanation, the following will be explained regarding wet organic waste and dry organic waste.

Types of Organic Waste

Organic waste is divided into two types, namely wet organic waste and dry organic waste. Here is the explanation.

1. Wet Organic Waste

Wet organic waste is one of the types of organic waste in which water content is stored at a high and abundant rate. Typically, wet organic waste has a low level of hardness or can be said to be softer so that bacteria are also easier to process and destroy waste or garbage.

There are some examples of wet organic waste that you need to know and understand, among them.

Examples of wet organic waste: food waste

Wet organic waste from food waste, namely vegetable waste, corn husks, rotting fruit waste, onion skins, seeds, banana skins, straw and the like. The rest of the ingredients that have been mentioned, we often find them for cooking ingredients in the kitchen.

That type of organic waste must be separated from other waste because we can still use it and process it again, for example, it can be processed into compost, or it can also be processed into something interesting (of course a drying process is required first).

Examples of wet organic waste: excreta of living things

Wet organic waste from the excrement of living things can be recycled to be used as manure that can be beneficial for plants at home. Usually, manure is produced from animal excrement such as chicken excrement, cow excrement, or goat excrement.

Maybe you will ask, why should it be processed into manure? That is because manure contains micro and macro nutrients that are good for the soil so that when it is used for plantations, the plants will flourish.

Organic fertilizers that have been tested for their superiority, are not only useful for fertilizing plants, but also for improving nutrients and restoring soil fertility.

You can process your own environmentally friendly non-chemical fertilizers by making use of agricultural waste, animal husbandry waste, and even household waste.

This book completely explains how to make solid and liquid organic fertilizers, as well as their application for agriculture, animal husbandry, and fisheries.

2. Dry Organic Waste

In contrast to wet organic waste, dry organic waste generally keeps water content at a rate that tends to be small. This causes dry organic waste to take longer to break down so that it can be recycled.

Here are some examples of dry organic waste that is difficult to decompose, among them.

Examples of dry organic waste: logs

Typically, logs are sourced from felled trees. As we know that logs are very difficult to destroy, it even takes a long time, even though we have piled or buried them at the bottom of the ground. An effective way to make the process of destroying logs faster is to cut the logs into smaller sizes.

Examples of dry organic waste: eggshells

Eggshells become one of the household food wastes that belong to dry organic waste. That is because the eggshell has a material that is hard enough to cause the recycling process to take a long time. That way, even in its processing it needs better caution.

Examples of dry organic waste: coconut shells

No wonder when coconut shells are included in dry organic waste. That is because the coconut shell has very little water content, then the texture is also very hard. Then, the coconut shell also takes a long time to disintegrate.

That can be proven when you are visiting a beach, then see a coconut shell that is very dry, but the shell is still very hard and not completely destroyed.

There are various types of fertilizers that make farmers and garden operators have many options in determining which fertilizer is the cheapest or the easiest. However, due to the large variety of fertilizers, sometimes farmers and garden operators find it difficult to decide which fertilizer to use because they do not know it for sure.

So through this book will be discussed and introduced about solid organic fertilizer and how to make it.

Characteristics of Organic Waste

There is an easy way to distinguish which is organic waste and which is not, namely by recognizing and understanding its characteristics or characteristics. The following will briefly explain the characteristics of organic waste.

1. Generally, organic waste has a high water content. During the decomposition process, the water content found in the waste will evaporate until it finally dries up.
2. Organic waste comes from the waste of natural materials which, when it is the result of human processing, does not go through a long process and contains many chemical substances.
3. Waste tends to decompose easily, without having to go through various processing processes. That can be proven when you find waste or garbage that is about to be destroyed even though it is only left for a few periods without undergoing various processes.
4. Microbes or decomposing germs that are in or at the bottom of the soil are able to destroy waste or garbage. In other words, when burying or burying organic waste in the ground in the right way, the condition inside or the bottom of the soil will not be contaminated.

Benefits of Organic Waste

Maybe you have thought that waste or garbage has absolutely no use or benefit. That thought is not accurate. That is because garbage or organic waste certainly has many benefits that can be used as a source of income when it is processed into a useful form or product.

What’s more, the utilization can minimize the amount of waste in landfills or final disposal sites. Still don’t believe it? See the following explanation regarding some of the benefits of organic waste.

1. Organic Waste can be Processed into Organic Fertilizer or Compost

If you have a hobby of gardening and planting plants in your yard, you can use organic waste that has been processed into compost as a fertilizer for your plants.

Make use of organic waste, such as vegetable waste, fruit waste which is then processed into compost. For the process of making this compost or organic fertilizer, it is not complicated.

2. Organic Waste as Soil Fertilizer

In addition to being used for the manufacture of organic fertilizers or compost, organic waste can be used as a soil fertilizer. How to do it? You just plant or bury garbage or organic waste in the ground.

Later, the organic waste will decompose and provide nutrients that can fertilize the soil so that the plants you have also grow healthier.

3. Organic Waste as Animal Feed

Organic waste can also be used for animal feed. You can directly use waste or organic waste as animal feed, for example, goat, buffalo or cow feed.

In addition to being used as animal feed, it turns out that organic waste can also be used and processed into pellets for chicken and fish feed. The high nutrients in organic waste can make livestock grow healthier.

4. Organic waste becomes a source of electricity and biogas

Furthermore, the benefit of organic waste is that it can be processed into a source of electricity and biogas. Organic waste that can be forgiven as a source of electricity and biogas material, among them the excrement of living creatures, tofu, and tempeh.

How to do it? The trick is to prepare a media or a closed container to be used as a reservoir for the gas that has been added to water, then stir the two mixtures so that the manufacturing or processing process can run smoothly and quickly.

5. Organic waste can be processed into handicrafts

Some people, including you, may think that what can be processed into handicrafts is only inorganic waste. Although, organic waste can also be used, lol.

Organic waste of a type of hyacinth plant can be dried and burned which is then processed into a beautiful bag. Not only that, coconut shells can also be processed and used for tableware, such as small bowls, cups, and others.

This book will discuss step by step how to make your own liquid organic fertilizer with existing ingredients, and of course with a lighter cost than having to keep buying artificial fertilizer.

How to Process Organic Waste

After knowing some of the benefits of organic waste, it’s time to find out how to process it. The following will briefly explain how to process organic waste that you can follow at home.

How to Process Organic Waste into Compost Fertilizer

Before entering the manufacturing stage, prepare the necessary tools and materials first, namely media or a large container with a lid (you can use a bucket or a large barrel), gloves, household waste (you can use vegetable or other food waste), soil , enough water, chaff charcoal, agricultural lime, and EM4 fertilizer liquid for additional ingredients.

Now, enter the stage of making organic waste into compost. First, prepare organic waste or household waste to be processed into compost or organic fertilizer. Then, separate organic waste, such as vegetable or food waste and plastic waste. That is because it is the organic waste that is to be used to make compost.

Next, prepare the large container or media that was prepared earlier. Remember, the container or media to be used must have a lid. That is so that the fertilizer to be made will not be contaminated with outside air. Then, put enough soil into the container, make sure the container has also been filled with organic waste. For the thickness itself, you can adjust it to the media or container as well as the amount of organic waste used.

Pour and flush the surface of the soil with water, just enough. Add the organic waste that has been mixed with husk charcoal (this is only optional), and agricultural lime into the container or media earlier.

Try to make sure that the waste is stored evenly. In other words, the thickness between the litter and the soil should be equal. Then, pour and flush with water that has been mixed with EM4. then, add more soil to the container. The soil here serves as a garbage cover. Finally, close the container tightly and let it sit for approximately 21 days or three weeks.

However, there are some things to be aware of when you make compost or organic fertilizer yourself at home. First, make sure that the container for making compost is not contaminated by rainwater and other animals. Then, do not leave the container exposed to sunlight.

Well, when all that is done, you can immediately use the compost or organic fertilizer that you have made to cultivate various types of plants or plants in your yard.

How to Process Organic Waste into Biogas

Biogas is produced from the decomposition of organic matter by anaerobic bacteria, ie bacteria or germs that live and grow in dense air. Typically, all types of organic matter managed will produce biogas. However, only solid and homogeneous liquid organic matter is capable of producing biogas.

There are three types of materials that promise to be managed as household biogas raw materials in Indonesia, among them organic waste, animal or human excrement, and liquid waste. The following will be explained related to the process of making household biogas.

First, mix organic waste with water, the ratio is 1:1. Then, put the biogas material into the reactor through the filling point of 2,000 liters, then there will be a biogas production process inside the reactor.

After approximately 10 days the biogas reactor and biogas container will expand and harden. That is because of the biogas produced. Biogas can be used as fuel and biogas stoves can be used.

Then, don’t forget to shake the biogas reactor occasionally so that complete decomposition occurs and the gas at the bottom will rise to the top. Do the same at each reactor filling.

For the next filling of biogas material can be done every day, ie every morning and afternoon as much as 40 liters. As for the waste from the processing of biogas material in the form of mud, it will come out by itself or spontaneously every time the biogas material is filled. Finally, the waste from the processing of the biogas material can finally be used directly as organic fertilizer. That way, biogas can be used for household needs.

That is the information about Organic Waste, ranging from types, characteristics, benefits to how to process organic waste. If Reader is interested and wants to expand knowledge related to organic waste processing or the like, of course you can find, buy, and read the book on Sinaumedia.com and Sinaumedia Digital because Sinaumedia is always a #SahabatTanpaBatas for those of you who want to gain knowledge.

Hopefully this article can add to your insight, yes!

This book provides an introduction to organic farming and organic pesticides that can be made by yourself, the ingredients are simple and available around us. In addition to being environmentally friendly, organic pesticides can also be a business opportunity. A hassle-free way to make it can be practiced anytime and anywhere.

Definition of Domestic Waste & Examples of Domestic Waste – Waste has become one of the long-lasting problems and is quite difficult to overcome because it will continue to exist following the development of human life. Humans will produce waste from their various activities. Starting from industrial activities, agricultural activities, to daily activities that humans do will produce waste. The waste that is currently the most produced by humans is domestic waste. Domestic waste is part of the waste or waste produced from various human activities. Domestic waste can come from households, schools, accommodation, restaurants, offices, markets, malls, and other similar facilities.

Types and Examples of Domestic Waste

Domestic waste is classified into two types, namely liquid waste and solid waste. Here is the explanation.

1. Domestic Liquid Waste

Domestic liquid waste comes from various human activities or daily needs, such as water used for bathing, water used for washing clothes, water used for washing tableware, liquid food waste, and human excrement. The disposal of domestic liquid waste needs to be well managed because not a few of these types of waste contain chemicals, such as detergents, bath soap, and oil, so they can cause damage to the environment.

2. Domestic Solid Waste

Domestic solid waste comes from various materials or items that are left over and are no longer needed. Solid waste that is disposed of carelessly will cause pollution and damage to the environment. Domestic solid waste is divided into two types, namely organic waste and inorganic waste.

Here is an ebook about creative creations using used paper and newspapers.

1) Domestic Organic Waste

Organic waste is waste that comes from garbage or food waste, such as fruit, vegetables, chicken, and rice. Discarded organic waste will undergo decay and decompose by itself.

2) Domestic Inorganic Waste

Inorganic waste is waste that comes from materials or goods that are difficult or even cannot be decomposed through biological processes, such as iron, bottles, plastic, glass, household appliances, and electronic equipment. Inorganic waste that is piled up and disposed of carelessly will have a bad impact by polluting and disturbing the scenery and comfort of the environment.

Impact of Domestic Waste

If domestic waste is disposed of without prior management, it can cause various adverse effects on the environment and surrounding communities. Here are some of the negative impacts that can be caused by domestic waste disposal.

1. Impact of Domestic Waste on health

Disposing of domestic waste without prior management can have a negative impact on human health. Solid waste that is thrown carelessly on the surface of the ground will undergo decay. Waste that undergoes decay can produce poisonous gases, such as methane, sulfuric acid, and ammonia. This type of waste can also cause pollution to water and the environment if it is dumped in waters, such as rivers or seas. This type of domestic waste can cause various health disorders, such as diarrhea, itching, to kidney and liver disorders.

In addition, domestic waste water originating from toilets can also cause various diseases, such as diarrhea, cholera, and typhus, because it contains E. Coli bacteria. This toilet waste water needs to be managed well. The distance between the well and the septic tank must be far enough because otherwise, waste water can absorb into the well. Well water contaminated by waste water will contain bacteria that can spread if used for bathing, brushing teeth, washing dishes, and other activities that use well water without going through the cooking process.

2. The Impact of Domestic Waste on the Environment

Disposing of domestic waste without prior management can cause pollution and damage to the environment. The disposal of domestic waste containing chemicals, such as detergents, on the soil surface can affect the level of acidity/pH of the soil which will affect the absorption of nutrients and plant growth. Waste with chemical content dumped in the river will damage or even kill the plants and animals that live in the river. This happens because the wastewater that contains domestic chemicals will reduce the amount of oxygen in the river water, thus damaging the quality of the river water. This situation will affect the damage to the ecosystem in the river in the long term.

3. The impact of Domestic Waste on aesthetics

The disposal of domestic waste without prior management can cause unpleasant odors or foul odors that will disturb the sense of smell. Indiscriminate disposal of waste will also cause the environment to become shabby and dirty so that it is not pleasant to look at.

How to Reduce Domestic Waste

Domestic waste has various adverse effects on the environment and human life. Therefore, there is a need for efforts to reduce the amount of domestic waste. Here are some ways that can be done to reduce the amount of domestic waste.

1. Reduce Electricity Consumption

Reducing the use or saving electricity can reduce the amount of domestic waste produced by electronic goods. Ways to save electricity can be done by always turning off electronic items that are not in use, turning off lights during the day by taking advantage of sunlight, and using more energy-efficient electronic items, such as LED lights.

2. Reducing the Use of Air Conditioning

Reducing the use of air conditioning or AC can reduce the amount of domestic waste because this device can produce waste in the form of freon or CFC substances, which can cause environmental pollution and result in the depletion of the ozone layer. The use of air conditioning can be reduced by taking advantage of natural air from windows and air ventilation in the house.

4. Quit Using Plastic Bags

Plastic is one of the most common domestic wastes. Plastic waste, as inorganic waste that is very difficult to decompose, can cause environmental damage. Therefore, replacing the use of plastic bags with shopping bags that are more environmentally friendly, such as shopping bags made of cloth and canvas, is very necessary to reduce the amount of domestic plastic waste.

Domestic Waste Management

Efforts to manage domestic waste accurately are very necessary to overcome the impact of pollution and environmental damage. Domestic waste management can be done according to each type. The following is an explanation of domestic waste management.

1. Domestic Liquid Waste Management

One form of management that can be done to reduce pollution from domestic liquid waste is to use a Bio Septic Tank . Bio septic tanks can be used to accommodate domestic liquid waste so that it can reduce environmental pollution. Bio Septic Tank has a large enough capacity and is equipped with a filtering device that can reduce the smell of dirt and avoid soil pollution. Bio septic tank is made of thick fiber so that it is able to prevent leakage from the waste stored in it.

Another way that can be done to manage domestic liquid waste is to manage greywater. Greywater is a domestic liquid waste that comes from several liquid wastes, other than toilet waste. Greywater can be produced from used shower water, used water for washing clothes, used water for washing equipment, and others. Greywater Processingcan be done by making an organic filter tank so that domestic liquid waste is not wasted directly on the ground or waterways. The filter tank can be filled with sand, soil, and filtering plants, such as water hyacinth, kangkung, and marigold, which will purify and reduce water pollution. The channeling of water used for bathing and washing to the filter tank is done gradually. The water used to wash the tableware will go into the grease trap first. Greywater can reduce environmental pollution and can be used as an alternative water source to overcome the problem of the amount of water that continues to decrease in urban areas. Water produced by management greywater managementcan be used for needs other than eating and drinking, such as cleaning toilets, washing toilets, and watering plants.

Here is an ebook on domestic waste water management.

2. Domestic Solid Waste Management

Domestic solid waste management can be done with the following processes.

1) Sorting

Sorting is one of the most common methods of solid waste management. This method is done by sorting or separating organic waste (wet waste) and inorganic waste (dry waste). Organic waste (wet waste) can be processed into organic fertilizer or compost. Meanwhile, inorganic waste (dry waste) can be sorted back to be given to scavengers or recycled to produce valuable goods.

Here is an ebook on easy ways to make organic fertilizer.

2) Container

Containerization is a temporary waste storage activity independently before being transported or transferred to a Temporary Storage Site (TPS) or a Final Processing Site (TPA). Containment is done by providing a container to separate inorganic waste based on its type or material,

3) Collection

The process of collecting solid waste is carried out by sanitation workers who come to each place to transport or transfer waste to the Temporary Storage Place (TPS). The solid waste collection process can also be done in another way, namely through direct communal. Direct communal is the process of collecting solid waste at each communal point to be directly transported to the Final Processing Site (TPA) without being moved first.

4) Transportation

The process of transporting solid waste in direct communal collection is done by using transport vehicles such as compactor trucks and arm roll trucks . Each vehicle has a capacity of 6 m3 and 4 m3. Compactor trucks have the advantage of compressing solid waste so that it can increase its carrying capacity. These two solid waste transport vehicles are equipped with hydraulic pull arms so that the loading or unloading of solid waste can be done more easily without direct contact with the waste.

5) Temporary Shelter (TPS)

Solid waste that has previously been collected and transported will be taken to the Temporary Storage Site (TPS). TPS is a storage place before the waste is moved back to the processing and recycling site or Final Processing Site (TPA).

6) Final Processing Site (TLP)

Solid waste that has reached the Final Processing Site (TPA) will be isolated or safely piled up so as not to cause disturbance to the environment. In addition to isolating or accumulating waste, TPA will also process waste by sorting waste, recycling inorganic waste, and composting organic waste.

Understanding Liquidity – Liquidity is one of the important factors in the sustainability of a business. Of course, a company must have enough funds to meet its financial obligations aka debt. Therefore, we certainly need to have cash. Even so, too much cash will dilute the opportunity to invest and support the growth of the company.

Related to that, we need to understand the meaning of liquidity, because measuring liquidity can help to find the right balance and monitor the financial “health” of a company. As a result, our business can be helped and grow even more.

Not only that basic thing, liquidity is also important when we apply for a funding or loan. Because, banks and investors will pay close attention to the liquidity ratio when considering the ability of a company to repay its debt.

This is certainly a good reason for us to immediately learn liquidity, starting from the basics. But before that, what is the theoretical meaning of liquidity? Let’s take a look at the discussion below related to the meaning of liquidity to examples and its role in investment!

Definition of Liquidity

The notion of liquidity in general actually has two meanings. In a company, liquidity is one of the important factors to determine the condition or sustainability. Therefore, many business actors use liquidity as a yardstick or benchmark to assess the company’s ability to finance the needs or operational activities of the company.

As we know, the notion of liquidity in accounting and financial analysis is a measure of how easy and possible it is for a company to meet short-term obligations, such as business debts, dividends, taxes, and others, by using current assets.

For example, we may see that there is still enough cash to cover current and future bills as we expect. Or, we may need to take advantage of investments and other assets that can be converted into cash. The easier it is to convert an asset into cash, the more liquid the asset is.

For example, there is a shop that sells collectible stamps. The shop may reserve its inventory for the right buyer to get the best price, meaning the stamp is not very liquid. However, if the same stamp shop owns stocks or bonds, both can be sold quickly so that the investment is considered liquid.

In financial markets, this term refers to how quickly an investment can be sold without causing a negative impact on its price. If we know that an investment is more liquid, it means that the investment can be sold faster, and vice versa.

With the availability of liquidity, it is possible that assets that are assessed as more liquid will be traded at a higher price because of the profit they carry. Meanwhile, illiquid assets are traded at lower prices.

Be aware, companies use assets to run their business, including producing goods or creating value in other ways. Assets can include things like equipment or intellectual property. Meanwhile, supplies or products sold by companies to generate income are usually considered current assets because they will usually be sold within one year.

For an asset to be considered liquid, it needs to be in an established market with many interested buyers. Moreover, the asset must also have the ability to transfer ownership easily and quickly.

The information we need to check liquidity can be found in the company’s balance sheet. Because assets are usually listed in the order of how quickly they can be converted into cash. So, at the top of the balance sheet is cash, the most liquid asset.

In this balance sheet, the liabilities or debts of our company are also listed. Obligations are listed in the order of when they will fall due. Bills that must be paid first are listed at the top.

Comparing short-term liabilities with cash and other liquid assets can help us better understand the financial position of the business. Afterwards, we can increase the company’s liquidity with certain ratio numbers, such as current ratio, quick ratio, and cash ratio.

Liquidity Function

In short, a company’s high liquidity can trigger investor attraction. They will consider it as something positive, that our company is financially healthy and has a small risk of loss. Even in the stock market, companies with these characteristics are called blue chip stocks .

Judging from various sources, these are the various functions of the company’s liquidity.

• Become an anticipator of funds when the company is faced with sudden needs.
• Measuring the availability of cash and cash equivalents to meet short-term debt obligations.
• As a matter of consideration regarding the eligibility of a company in receiving an injection of funds from capitalists.
• Supporting the running of daily business activities.
• Facilitate the withdrawal of customer funds on behalf of the bank.
• Can help company management in overseeing capital efficiency.
• As an aid in analyzing and interpreting the company’s short-term financial position.
• Act as a trigger for the company in improving the work of its employees.

Types of Liquidity Ratios

Ratio, in terms of accounting, is the relationship between two financial variables that are systematically related to each other. Therefore, the analysis of the ratio obtained from the calculation process and the results of the ratio can be used as material to make a decision on the agreement of a company.

As for the three most important ratios to measure liquidity, namely:

1. Smooth Ratio

The current ratio is a number used to show how large the company’s ability to meet its current obligations by using current assets. In addition, this ratio can be used as a comparison between current assets and current liabilities.

The method used to find out the level of the company’s current ratio alias current ratio is quite simple, namely by observing the amount of the company’s current assets such as cash, receivables, supplies and other current assets.

If current assets have a larger amount than current liabilities, then the company has a high current ratio. The higher the current ratio, then it can be ensured that the company has the ability to pay off its debts or obligations.

This ratio calculates the company’s current assets against its current liabilities. This determines whether the company can pay off all its short-term debts with the money received from the sale of assets.

Formula used: Current Ratio = Current Assets/Liabilities or Current Debt

2. Quick Ratio

The quick ratio is a ratio that shows how large the company’s ability to pay off its short-term debt without including the value of the company’s inventory. A special feature of this quick ratio is that it only uses cash and other cash equivalents for its calculation.

It should be noted that the quick ratio is a ratio that shows how large the company’s ability to pay off its short-term debt by using current assets without including the value of the company’s inventory.

This is because inventory takes a relatively long time to be converted into an asset, so the company sets aside inventory first. The calculation of the liquidity level with the quick ratio only uses tangible assets such as cash and securities as the main component.

If the quick ratio is at the top, then the financial condition should be in a stable condition. This shows that it will be easier for the company to pay off its short-term debt with good financial conditions. Similar to the current ratio, only this quick ratio only considers receivables, cash, and bonds or stocks as assets.

This is the formula: Current Assets = Current Liquid Assets/Total Liabilities

3. Cash Ratio

This cash ratio is equal to cash divided by current liabilities. The calculation of this ratio will be useful when the company can only use its money to pay off debt. If the cash ratio is 1 or greater, it means that the business has a lot of liquidity and may not face problems in paying its debts.

The formula is Cash Ratio = (Cash and Cash Equivalents + Short-Term Investments)/Liabilities or Current Debt

4. Cash Turnover Ratio

This cash turnover ratio is used to give an overview of the amount of profit a company gets from working capital expenditure. As for the cash turnover ratio, it can show a relative figure which is the result of the total sales of products and working capital. The calculation of cash turnover ratio can be seen from the division of product sales figures with net working capital.

The result of this cash turnover ratio is the profit that the company has achieved from the amount of products sold and its working capital. The amount of this revenue should be greater than the debt to obtain good liquidity.

Formula: Cash Turnover = Sales/Average Cash and Cash Equivalents

5. Working Capital Ratio

Enterprises must be related to working capital. Therefore, in a company, the working capital ratio will be needed to know the picture of their liquidity level. This ratio is seen through assets and working capital positions that can finance the company’s operations.

The calculation of the working capital ratio is done by comparing the company’s total assets with its liabilities. Then, divided by the total assets

The Importance of Liquidity in Business

At this stage, we certainly already know that liquidity is one of the most important factors in the sustainability of a business. However, there are still some things we need to understand about the importance of this liquidity. Let’s watch together!

Good liquidity can be a way to bring together businessmen with the right investors or short-term borrowers. The company will be able to present their efforts with a good effect if they have high liquidity.

Internally, the company also knows their financial status, is it good or bad, risky or not?

The Role of Liquidity in Investments

Besides in business, liquidity is also very important in investing, Reader. We certainly don’t want to give funds to unreliable companies, right? Consideration about their liquidity needs to be done to ensure that our investment is not wasted, especially for the long term.

Here are some focus on the role of liquidity in financial planning:

1. As a Deviation for Cash Proposal

We are advised to set aside a small amount of cash for emergencies, regardless of our total investment in non-liquid assets. Although the amount of this small reserve varies for each person depending on their short-term needs, the general advice is to save three months’ worth of income for this.

2. Balancer between Liquid and Illiquid Investments

Ideally, liquid assets such as mutual funds, shares, bonds, and other alternatives should be properly allocated while the rest is deployed for non-liquid assets. As we know, liquid assets can be converted into cash precisely. This is exactly what we need in saving some wealth.

Even if we don’t invest, we definitely need a cash reserve . So, it is necessary to consider having liquid assets that can be saved depending on our monthly budget and various other factors.

Examples of Liquid Assets and Liquidity Ratio Application

Reader, now we understand about liquidity. However, it certainly feels less if we don’t know real examples in the field. This time, let’s discuss an example of an asset that is liquid and the application of the liquidity ratio in its calculation!

Examples of liquid and illiquid assets

1. Cash or Cash

Cash is the most liquid asset because in relation to liquidity, all other assets are valued for their ease of conversion into cash aka cash.

2. Restricted Cash ( Restricted Cash )

Restricted cash is a cash deposit as a deviation made by the company for future obligations. This amount of cash is also significant. Even so, these deposits are considered illiquid if they are legally restricted such as compensation for loans.

3. Valuable Letters

These are financial instruments that can be traded in the public market. The liquidity of the securities is related to the daily trading volume of the securities. Government bonds with high trading volumes are considered almost as liquid as cash. Meanwhile, securities with a small value are considered illiquid.

4. Cash Equivalent

Cash equivalents include securities and instruments that can be exchanged for cash such as bills and commercial paper.

5. Credit

Unused credit such as lines of credit can help entities to achieve liquidity. Even so, such facilities may be subject to requirements that make them far less reliable than cash in a liquidity crisis. For example, in the event of a global financial crisis, banks may have an incentive to withdraw credit lines.

6. Assets (Illiquid)

Assets such as inventory, receivables, equipment, vehicles, and real estate are not considered liquid because they require months to be converted into cash. In the event of financial stress, the asset may be difficult to convert into cash at all.

Examples of Liquidity Ratio Application

S&S Company has received building materials and other supplies from vendors to complete a project. This vendor certainly hopes that S&S can pay in full after the project is completed. At some point after S&S is close to completing the project, the company must ensure that they have enough money to pay off the loan from the vendor.

Unfortunately, S&S realized that their income was not enough to pay the vendors, so they decided to liquidate some of their current assets. Meanwhile, the ratio used to calculate their ability to repay vendors is the quick ratio.

S&S found that they have current liabilities of USD400 thousand, USD100 thousand in cash, USD100 thousand in securities, and USD300 thousand in receivables. Here’s how to calculate it:

Current Assets = Current Liquid Assets/Total Liabilities
= Cash + securities + receivables/current liabilities
= 100,000 + 100,000 + 300,000/400,000
= 500,000/400,000

With this calculation, S&S can know if their company can still liquidate assets to match and pay off their current debt.

Conclusion

Reader, liquidity is very important, isn’t it, in the smooth operation of the company? Not only liquidity, other accounting concepts are of course also needed. Not only in the aspect of business, everyday life even the law will require the concept of accounting in some of its activities!

Etymology, Philosophy, and Early History of Liberalism Ideology – Liberalism is a political and moral philosophical view based on freedom, consent from the governed and equality before the law. Liberals support a variety of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally they support individual rights (including civil and human rights), democracy, secularism, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion and market economy.

Liberalism became one of the main movements in the Age of Enlightenment and became popular among Western philosophers and economists. Liberalism seeks to replace the norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy, divine right of kings and traditional conservatism with representative democracy and the rule of law. The liberals also ended mercantilist policies, government monopolies and other trade barriers. This is meant to promote free trade and marketization.

Philosopher John Locke is often considered the founder of liberalism, a tradition based on the social contract, arguing that everyone has a natural right to life, liberty and property and that the government cannot violate these rights. If the British liberal tradition emphasizes the expansion of democracy, French liberalism emphasizes the rejection of authoritarianism and is related to the development of the nation.

The leaders in the Great British Revolution of 1688, the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789 used liberal philosophy to overthrow the absolute sovereignty of the government by arms. Liberalism began to spread rapidly, especially after the French Revolution. In the 19th century, many liberal governments were established in most countries in Europe and South America. This coincides with the establishment of republicanism in the United States.

Liberalism in Victorian England was used to criticize established political institutions, referring to science and common sense in the name of the people. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, liberalism in the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East influenced reform periods such as the Tanzimat and Al-Nahda and the emergence of constitutionalism, nationalism, and secularism.

Before 1920, the main ideological opponents of liberalism were communism, conservatism, and socialism. However, liberalism then faced major ideological challenges from fascism and Marxism-Leninism as a new opponent. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread further, especially in Western Europe, when liberal democracy emerged victorious in both world wars.

The formation of social liberalism (often called moderate liberalism in the United States) in Europe and North America became an important element in the expansion of the welfare state. Today, many liberal parties hold power and influence around the world. The fundamental elements of contemporary society have liberal roots.

The early wave of liberalism popularized economic individualism while expanding constitutional government and parliamentary authority. Liberals seek and establish a constitutional order that values ​​important individual freedoms, such as freedom of speech and freedom of association; freedom of religion, independent courts, public trials by jury; and the abolition of aristocratic privileges.

The wave of modern liberal thought and struggle has been strongly influenced by the need to expand civil rights. Liberals often support gender equality and racial equality in their efforts to promote civil rights. The global civil rights movement in the 20th century aimed to achieve these goals. Other goals often promoted by liberals include universal suffrage and universal access to education.

Etymology and Meaning of Liberalism

Words like liberal, liberty, libertarian , and libertine all have historical roots to the Latin liber , meaning “free.” One of the first recorded examples of the use of the word liberal occurred in 1375, when it was used to describe the liberal arts in the context of education desired for free people.

The early connection of the word with the classical education of medieval universities paved the way for the emergence of different denotations and connotations. Liberal can refer to “free to bestow” as early as 1387, “made free of duty” in 1433, “freely permitted” in 1530 and “free from restraint”—often as a derogatory comment—in the 16th and 20th centuries. -17.

In 16th century England, liberal could have a positive or negative attribute in referring to someone’s generosity or recklessness. In Much Ado About Nothing , William Shakespeare writes of “a liberal villain” who “has […] acknowledged his vile meeting”. With the advent of the Age of Enlightenment, the word liberal acquired a more positive meaning which was defined as “free from narrow prejudice” in 1781 and “free from bigotry” in 1823.

In 1815, the first use of the word “liberalism” appeared in the English language. In Spain, the liberals, the first group to use the liberal label in a political context, fought for several decades to implement the Constitution of 1812. From 1820 to 1823 during the Trienio Liberal , King Ferdinand VII was forced by the liberals to swear to uphold the Constitution. In the mid-19th century, the word liberal was used as a political term for parties and movements around the world.

As time went by, the meaning of the word liberalism started to become different in various parts of the world. According to Encyclopædia Britannica : “In the United States, liberalism is associated with welfare state policies from the New Deal program of the Democratic administration of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, while in Europe it is more often associated with limited government commitment and laissez-faire economic policy .

As a result, in the United States the ideas of individualism and laissez-faire economics that were previously associated with classical liberalism became the basis for the emergence of libertarian thought and are an important part of American conservatism.

In Europe and Latin America, the word liberalism means a moderate form of classical liberalism, unlike in North America. This term includes center-right conservative liberalism (right liberalism) and center-left social liberalism (left liberalism).

Unlike Europe and Latin America, the word liberalism in North America almost exclusively refers to social liberalism (left liberalism). The dominant Canadian party is the Liberal Party and the Democratic Party is usually considered liberal in the United States. In the United States, conservative liberals are usually called conservatives in a broad sense.

Philosophy of Liberalism

Liberalism—both as a political current and as an intellectual tradition—is largely a modern phenomenon that began in the 17th century, although some liberal philosophical ideas had antecedents in classical times and in Imperial China. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius praised, “the idea of ​​government which is organized with regard to equal rights and the same freedom of speech, and the idea of ​​government which respects almost all the liberties of the governed”.

Scholars recognize a number of principles common to contemporary liberals in the works of several Sophists and in the Funeral Oration by Pericles. Liberal philosophy represents a broad intellectual tradition that has examined and popularized some of the most important and controversial principles in the modern world. Its extraordinary scientific and academic output is considered to have “richness and diversity”, but that diversity often means that liberalism comes in different formulations and presents a challenge for anyone to find the right definition.

Continental European liberalism is divided between moderates and progressives, with moderates tending to elitism and progressives supporting the universalization of fundamental institutions such as universal suffrage, universal education and the expansion of property rights. Over time, moderates replaced progressives as the main guardians of continental European liberalism.

History of Liberalism

John Locke was the first to develop liberal philosophy, including the right to private property and the consent of the governed.

Isolated liberal thought has existed in Western philosophy since Ancient Greece and in Eastern philosophy since the Song and Ming periods. These ideas were first brought together and systematized as different ideologies by the English philosopher John Locke, who is generally regarded as the father of modern liberalism.

The first major signs of liberal politics appeared in modern times. These ideas began to coalesce during the English Civil War. During the war, the Levellers, a radical political movement, called for religious freedom and equality before the law. The influence of these ideas continued to grow during the 17th century in England, culminating in the Great Revolution of 1688, which enshrined parliamentary sovereignty and revolutionary rights and was influential in the formation of what many consider to be the first modern liberal state.

The development of liberalism continued throughout the 18th century with the development of Enlightenment ideals at that time. During this time, intellectuals questioned the old traditions and influenced the conduct of several European monarchies throughout the 18th century. Political tension between England and the American colonies occurred after 1765 and the Seven Years’ War due to the problem of taxation without representation, which culminated in the new republic’s Declaration of Independence, and the American Revolutionary War which was fought to defend that independence.

After the war, leaders debated how to move forward. The Articles of Confederation, written in 1776, now seem inadequate to provide security, or even functional government. The Confederate Congress called the Constitutional Convention in 1787 resulted in the writing of a new United States Constitution to form a federal government. In these periods, the Constitution was a republican and liberal document. The United States Constitution remains the oldest liberal governing document in force in the world.

In Europe, liberalism has a long tradition, especially since the 17th century. The French Revolution began in 1789. Two important events that marked the victory of liberalism were the abolition of feudalism in France on the night of August 4, 1789, which marked the collapse of traditional feudal rights and special rights and the limitation of power with the ratification of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen on the month of August.

During the Napoleonic Wars, the French influenced the countries of Western Europe with the abolition of the feudal system, the liberalization of property laws, the end of seigneurial dues, the abolition of unions, the legalization of divorce, the disintegration of the Jewish ghetto, the collapse of the Inquisition, the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, the abolition of church courts and authorities religion in the public sphere, the formation of a metric system, and the recognition of legal equality for all people.

One of the most enduring French influences, the Civil Code, has been adopted in many countries around the world”, but also perpetuates further discrimination against women under the concept of “natural order”.

The development of classical liberalism occurred before and after the French Revolution in England. Adam Smith’s work, The Wealth of Nations , published in 1776, provided most of the economic ideas at least until the publication of John Stuart Mill’s Principles of Political Economy in 1848.

Smith discussed the motivation of economic activities, the causes of prices and distribution of wealth and policies that the country should follow to maximize wealth. The radical liberal movement began in the 1790s in England and concentrated on parliamentary and electoral reform, emphasizing natural rights and people’s sovereignty. Radicals such as Richard Price and Joseph Priestley saw parliamentary reform as the first step to address many of their grievances, including the treatment of Protestant Dissenters, the slave trade, high prices and high taxes.

In Latin America, liberal unrest began in the 18th century, when liberal agitation in Latin America led to independence from the Spanish and Portuguese imperial powers. These new regimes were generally liberal in their political views and used the philosophy of positivism, which emphasized the truth of modern science, to support their positions.

In the United States, the great civil war resulted in the abolition of slavery in the South. Historian Don Doyle argues that the Union’s victory in the American Civil War (1861–1865) gave a great impetus to the path of liberalism.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries in the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, liberalism influenced reform periods such as the Tanzimat and Al-Nahda; the rise of secularism, constitutionalism and nationalism; and the emergence of different intellectual and religious groups and movements, such as the Young Ottomans and Islamic Modernism.

Prominent figures at that time were Rifa’a al-Tahtawi, Namık Kemal and Brahim Inasi. However, reformist ideas and trends did not succeed in reaching the general public because books, magazines, and newspapers were only accessible to intellectuals and segments of the emerging middle class, while many Muslims saw it as a foreign influence in the Islamic world.

That perception complicates reformist efforts in Middle Eastern countries. These changes, along with other factors, created a sense of crisis in Islam, which continues to this day. This also led to the rise of Islamism.

Abolitionist and suffrage movements spread, along with ideals of representation and democracy. France established the third republic in the 1870s. However, nationalism also spread rapidly after 1815. A mixture of liberal and nationalist sentiments in Italy and Germany led to the unification of the two countries at the end of the 19th century.

A liberal regime came to power in Italy and ended the power of the Popes. However, the Vatican launched a crusade against liberalism. Pope Pius IX issued the Syllabus of Errors in 1864 which condemned liberalism in all its forms. In many countries, liberal forces responded by expelling the Jesuit order.

At the end of the nineteenth century, the principles of classical liberalism were increasingly opposed and the ideal of the independent individual seemed increasingly to be considered absurd. Victorian English writers such as Charles Dickens, Thomas Carlyle and Matthew Arnold were early influential critics of social injustice.

As a liberal nationalist, KJ Ståhlberg (1865–1952), President of Finland, anchored the country in liberal democracy, maintained the rule of law, and initiated internal reforms.

Liberalism gained momentum in the early 20th century. The bastion of autocracy, the Tsar of Russia, was overthrown in the first phase of the Russian Revolution. The victory of the Allies in the First World War and the fall of the four kingdoms seemed to mark the triumph of liberalism across the European continent. Not only among the victorious allied countries, but also in Germany and the newly formed Eastern European countries.

Militarism, as symbolized by Germany, was defeated and discredited. As Blinkhorn puts it, liberal themes are very influential in terms of “cultural pluralism, religious and ethnic tolerance, national self-determination, free market economy, representative and responsible government, free trade, trade unions, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes through a new way, the League of Nations”.

Color photo of Franklin D. Roosevelt as Time’s Man of the Year in January 1933.

In the United States, modern liberalism began with the popular presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, who initiated the New Deal in response to the Great Depression and won an unprecedented four elections. The New Deal coalition established by Roosevelt left a legacy that defined and influenced many future American presidents, including John F. Kennedy.

Meanwhile, the definitive liberal response to the Great Depression was given by British economist John Maynard Keynes, who had begun a theoretical work examining the relationship between unemployment, money, and prices in the 1920s. The Great Depression around the world, beginning in 1929, accelerated the discrediting of liberal economics and strengthened calls for state control over economic affairs. Economic woes led to widespread unrest in European politics, leading to the rise of fascism as an ideology and movement opposed to liberalism and communism, especially in Nazi Germany and Italy.

The rise of fascism in the 1930s eventually culminated in World War II, one of the deadliest conflicts in human history. The Allied Bloc won the war in 1945 and their victory started a new chapter for the Cold War between the Communist Eastern Bloc and the liberal Western Bloc.

In Iran, liberalism enjoyed wide popularity. In April 1951, the National Front became the governing coalition when a democratically elected politician, Mohammad Mosaddegh, a liberal nationalist, became Prime Minister. However, his way of governing was against Western interests and he was removed from power through a coup on August 19, 1953. The coup ended the dominance of liberalism in the country’s politics.

Among various regional and national movements, the civil rights movement in the United States during the 1960s highlighted liberal efforts to create equal rights. The Great Society project launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson oversaw the creation of Medicare and Medicaid, the creation of Head Start and the Job Corps as part of the War on Poverty and the ratification of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, a series of events that some historians have dubbed “the Liberal Hour. “ “.

The 2017 Russian protests were organized by Russia’s liberal opposition.

The Cold War featured extensive ideological rivalry and several proxy wars, but the feared World War III between the Soviet Union and the United States never occurred. While communist countries and liberal democracies competed with each other, the economic crisis of the 1970s inspired a move away from Keynesian economics, especially under Margaret Thatcher in England and Ronald Reagan in the United States.

This trend, known as neoliberalism, is a paradigm shift from the post-war Keynesian consensus that lasted from 1945 to 1980. Meanwhile, towards the end of the 20th century, the communist countries of Eastern Europe collapsed drastically. This made liberal democracy the only major form of government in the West.

At the beginning of World War II, the number of democracies around the world was about the same as it had been forty years earlier. After 1945, liberal democracy spread very quickly, but then suffered a setback. In The Spirit of Democracy , Larry Diamond argued that in 1974 “dictatorship, not democracy, is the way of the world” and that “almost a quarter of independent nations choose their government through competitive, free, and fair elections”. Diamond further said that democracy rose again and in 1995 the world became “very democratic”.

Definition of Liability – In the business world, one thing and another usually have a relationship with one another. One of them is assets and liabilities that have a high relationship with the smoothness of the travel process of a business. In doing business activities, a company will definitely need assets.

While liability is a risk that should be taken by the company to develop the business that is being carried out. Even so, liability does not only exist in the form of debt or loan money. There are various forms of liability that Reader needs to be aware of. Compared to just guessing and assuming, Reader should read this article until it is finished to know the form of liability in detail.

Definition of Liability

Liability is an obligation that must be paid by a company to the relevant party by issuing a certain amount of funds or economic resources of the company. Generally, companies will take on liabilities to support all operational activities in their business.

That way, the expansion and development of a company can be done in a relatively faster time. When the company insists on not taking a risk by going into debt. Especially for companies that don’t have a lot of assets. So the development of the company has the potential to be hindered and not optimal.

As for the other meaning of a simpler liability, it is an obligation that is calculated equal to the value of money and must be paid by the company to the concerned party. The parties referred to here can be companies, individuals, cooperatives, banks, and other financial institutions. The point is, if according to accounting records, liability is a debt. Where in the accounting equation, liability is abbreviated as ALE by accountants.

The abbreviation has the abbreviation Assets, Liabilities, and Equity. Those three things are interrelated with each other. From that, there is an accounting equation that shows that assets come from the summation of liabilities and equity. Why does a company have a liability? It is related to the amount of assets owned by a company.

If all enterprises have few assets. So it is recommended to take responsibility. The purpose of that is as an effort so that the company can develop maximally. Because, when surviving with existing assets, it will automatically be difficult for the company to progress or grow. Reader needs to know that liability is not just in the form of money. But it can also be in the form of services, goods, or economic benefits in other forms. In addition, liability can also originate from various types of transactions. For example, from the exchange of assets, business relationships, and various transactions that can provide benefits for the company’s economy in the future.

In the science of financial accounting, liability is considered as an entity’s obligation that arises from a transaction or event in the past. The obligation in question is explained through the following characteristics:

1. Obligations are all types of debt or loans from banks or individuals aimed at increasing the company’s income.

2. In addition, an obligation is a responsibility from another party that requires settlement through the delivery of assets in the form of providing services and other transactions in the future and producing an economic benefit.

3. Obligation is a duty and responsibility on the related parties, whether to leave little or even not at all a policy in order to avoid settlement.

4. Lastly, an obligation is an event and transaction that has occurred and gives rise to the entity’s responsibility.

Difference between Liability and Burden

Liability and burden are often categorized as the same thing. But actually the two are very different. Liabilities are usually in the form of debt used by companies to obtain assets for operational needs. For example, when a company buys tools for production that are used in the manufacture of products. Then the payment is made using a loan, then the transaction is classified as a liability.

As for the burden, which includes ongoing payments for something that has no real value and is used to get profit or income. One example that can be used as an illustration is the cost incurred to pay for advertising with the aim of attracting customers. In addition, burdens and liabilities are generally listed in different places in the financial statements. Where liabilities are usually written on the financial balance sheet, while burdens are written on the profit and loss statement.

Types of Liability

In general, liabilities will appear and be recorded in the balance sheet of the financial statement written at the end of the period. The purpose is to identify the financial condition of a company during that period. Usually, put the liabilities in the financial statements in the right column along with the equity entries. Where in the recording, liabilities are in the order that has been determined. The following are 2 types of liability that Reader needs to know about in the financial report of a company or business. Watch until it’s finished.

1. Long Term Liability

The first type of liability is long-term liability. That means, the period determined for the payment of the obligation is expected to last for more than one year. Examples of long-term liabilities are debts in the form of mortgages, debt obligations and cash loans.

2. Short Term Liability

The second type of liability is short-term liability. This type of liability is often referred to as current liability. This can be interpreted as an obligation that is expected to be resolved within a short period of time or no more than a year. The following are some examples of short-term liabilities:

a. Sales Tax Obligations

Sales tax liability is also included in debt or liability. Where it is the accumulation of sales tax that can be obtained from consumers and held until the due date before it is paid to taxation.

b. Income Tax Liability

Of course we know that there are some companies that cut their employees’ salaries to be used as income tax. The deduction will usually be collected and stored until the time is deposited to the state taxation.

c. Mortgage Debt and Loan Fund

If previously the two debts were included in the example of long-term liability, then now they are present as an example of the type of short-term liability. This can happen when the payment is made in installments per month. That way, payments under 12 months will be categorized as short-term liabilities.

Apart from the 2 types of liabilities that have been mentioned above, there are actually still other types, namely capital. Capital is a type of liability that comes from the difference between assets and debts owned by a company. Capital is also included in the type of contingency liability. That means, whether or not there is an obligation depends on the events that will happen in the future. Therefore, the maturity of a liability of this type will never be predictable. So it is not surprising if there are not many company owners who take this type of liability. For example, the type of liability includes, among others, a warranty for a product, lawsuits through legal channels, and others.

Characteristics of Liability Is

For Reader who have been struggling in the business field for a long time or who have just started a business, they will certainly be very familiar with the term liability. This is because of the characteristics it has. Here are some characteristics of liability that need to be understood:

1. All loans used to increase personal or company income, be it from banks, individuals, or others must be paid at the same time when it is due.

2. All kinds of obligations that must be paid to other parties, whether it is the exchange of assets, cash transfers, the provision of services or services, and other activities that provide economic benefits in a period that has been determined in accordance with an agreement or at the time of a certain business event.

3. Business events or transactions that have already taken place and require the entity.

4. A form of entity’s responsibility to other parties, either those who abandon a policy or those who do not avoid settlement efforts.

How to Analyze Business Liability

Having a liability report on a company can also be used as one of the indicators of the company’s financial health. Therefore, writing and recording must be detailed and detailed, neat, and structured. The following are two ways that can be used to analyze liabilities in a company:

1. Through the Ratio of Debt to Assets Owned by a Company

When Reader uses this one method, then what needs to be ascertained is how many assets the company owns that can be used to meet and cover the obligations or liabilities. We can calculate by using the percentage of the total amount of debt and make sure that the total or amount is less than 50%. If the total of all debts owned can be covered by using the total business assets owned by a company. So it is most likely that the company will still be able to operate.

2. Using the Debt to Equity Ratio

The second way is to use the debt to equity ratio. Here we have to calculate the whole of the debt with the equity owned by the company. Make sure that the result of the ratio of debt to equity is not more than 50%. However, if the reality is more than 50%, then that is when the company should reduce the amount of liabilities or debts owned. So, liability is not something bad for a company or business. There was a time when it actually became one of the ways to achieve success.

As for the thing that needs to be understood, that is to keep control of the amount of liability so that it does not exceed the limit of the company’s ability to pay it. Because, the main purpose of using liability is to be able to develop a company or business, not to make it bankrupt due to a lot of debt.

Therefore, make neat, detailed, and structured notes for all liabilities owned. With these records, we can monitor and pay attention to the business position and also the company’s financial condition. In addition, liability can also give us the opportunity to develop our business to the maximum. However, we must ensure that the company can pay the obligation on time. So that when we need more liability, it will be easier to get it.

Examples of Liability

So that Reader gets a clear picture of what liability is. The following is an example of a liability case in a company:

Let’s just say, Andi is an employee at PT Maju Jaya. In May 2021, He received a salary of Rp. 7,000,000, then a child allowance of Rp. 800,000, and an allowance for transportation of Rp. 1,500,000. Not only that, to take care of Andi’s well-being, PT Maju Jaya also has to pay accident insurance amounting to Rp. 250,000, death insurance amounting to Rp. 100,000, and also an old age allowance of Rp. 300,000. So that the gross salary that Andi will receive is Rp. 9,950,000.

After that, Andi’s salary was cut by Rp. 400,000 to be used as a pension fund, Rp. 200,000 for zakat needs, Rp. 2,500,000 to pay the house installment to the Bank, and Rp. 425,000 PPh 21. Thus, Andi’s net salary in May 2021 is Rp. 6,425,000.

From the analysis above, the obligation that must be given to Andi and applies as long as Andi is still working at PT Maju Jaya is Rp. 9,950,000.

From the explanation above, we can conclude that liability is one of the things that can be used or used by a company to develop their company to the maximum. Company owners who insist on not taking liability can potentially hinder the growth and development of their own company and become suboptimal.

However, it should be understood that liability is different from burden as explained above. Where liabilities are usually used to acquire assets to meet operational needs. While burden is usually used for something that has no real value but has the potential to increase income.

From the explanation above, liabilities have 3 types which are categorized based on the time of payment. The first is Short Term Liabilities that mature in less than one year. The second is Long Term Liabilities that mature in more than one year. The third is Contingency Liability, this is an extraordinary debt that is done under special conditions only.

Calculation of liabilities using the ratio of debt to assets and to equity can make companies feel overwhelmed when done manually. Especially if the company takes many types of liability. In order to minimize mistakes, the company needs a special application as a supporter of online disability.

Well, that’s an explanation of what liability is in a company and what its benefits are for business development. For Reader who are struggling in the business field, the explanation above will certainly be very helpful in understanding the various ways to make the company and business more advanced.

Definition of Social Board – A social board is an institution that has members and is made up of people who come together as one because they have a common vision and mission. Every member who joins the social institution will be bound by the rules that have been made and must be obeyed. So that some social institutions have a regulatory nature.

However, what exactly is the meaning of social institutions? What are the characteristics, types and types? The following article will discuss briefly about social institutions. Read to the end of the article!

A. Meaning of Social Board

In general, social institutions that exist in community life are always different from one institution to another. The difference from the social institution occurs because of the process and background that underlies the formation of the social institution.

Some members also expressed their opinions on the meaning of social institutions:

1. Major Polak

According to Polak, a social institution is a social system related to complex rules with various customs to be able to maintain all important values ​​in community life.

2.W. Hamilton

W. Hamilton thinks that social institutions are a procedure and a way of life carried out by every group of society and if there is a violation, then the violator will be sanctioned according to the rules that he violated.

3. Koentjaraningrat

Koentjaraningrat also expressed his opinion. According to Koentjaraningrat, social institutions are a system with codes of conduct and relationships that have a center on social activities to be able to meet specific needs in community life.

4. Soerjono Soekanto

Soerjono Soekanto has a different opinion from Koentjaraningrat about the meaning of social institutions. According to Soerjono, social institutions are a set of norms at all levels that revolve around a basic need in social life.

5. Peter L Berger

In a different view from other experts, Peter L Berger expressed his opinion that social institutions are procedures that can cause human actions to be suppressed by a certain pattern and forced to move on a path that is considered to be in accordance with the wishes of society.

From the opinion on the meaning of social institution according to the experts, it can be concluded that social institution is a social system created through customs and adapted to each region that functions to regulate patterns and a series of procedures in order to create a social relationship that has one main purpose.

B. Functions of the Social Board

Social institutions that exist and are formed in society have the following functions.

1. The social board functions to provide guidelines to community members on how each individual should behave in facing problems that appear and develop in the community.
2. Social institutions function to maintain the integrity of the interrelated or concerned society.
3. The social board functions to give instructions to the community to be able to establish a social control system such as a community supervision system for its members.
4. That is a brief explanation about social institutions, Reader can learn more and dig deeper about the material of these social institutions.

C. Features of Social Board

Social institutions have several characteristics that Reader need to know in order to be able to determine and distinguish each type and type of social institution that will be explained later. Here are some of the characteristics of social institutions.

1. Social institutions have a certain permanence that lasts a long time. This is due to the assumption that this social institution contains a set of norms that must be maintained by the members in it and these norms are like life and relationships in a family.
2. Generally, social institutions have one or more specific goals that each member wants to achieve. For example, such as educational institutions that have the goal of being able to provide values, norms and knowledge to the next generation.
3. The social board has a number of devices that work to achieve the goals that have been set by the previous members. For example, such as flags, banners in political institutions and money as a medium of exchange in economic institutions and others.
4. The social board is a structured and relatively permanent organization.
5. The norms found in social institutions are taken through a long process until they can be recognized by the local community.
6. Social institutions have binding sanctions or punishments on how a person behaves and behaves.
7. To achieve the goals that have been formulated before, social institutions have written and unwritten rules.
8. Having certain complementary tools in the form of symbols and signs that can be used to represent the social institution along with the goals that the social institution wants to achieve.

D. Types of Social Boards

Social institutions are categorized based on five criteria, the following are the types of social institutions based on the five criteria.

1. Social Board Based on its Values

Social institutions based on their value criteria can be divided into two, namely primary and secondary.

a. Primary Social Institutions or Basic Social Institutions

Primary social institutions are social institutions that are basic and basic. Mainly this primary social institution is to regulate community life because it has high social rules to regulate community relations.

Social justice in this primary social institution exists in the community and is divided into four according to its rules.

• Religious rules , regulating the relationship between individuals and God based on all the teachings and prohibitions of God to shape people’s behavior to be useful to others.
• Code of Ethics, this code comes from within the individual himself. If the process of internalization as well as values ​​and norms succeeds well and maximally, then the individual can follow the rules of morality in society. Examples include being honest, responsible and disciplined.
• The Code of Politeness is a rule that has a relationship with socialization and interaction formed through social relationships that occur in the community. For example, mutual respect.
• Law , is a set of regulations made by the authorities and is written and forces its citizens to implement the order that has been included in the law.

Examples of primary social institutions in society are such as family institutions, educational institutions, legal institutions, economic institutions, religious institutions and health institutions.

b. Secondary Social Institutions or Subsidiary Social Institutions

The type of secondary social institution means that this social institution is secondary, the value of this social institution is considered unimportant by some people. Secondary social institutions need to be carried out compactly by all levels of society, because if they are not carried out and are not fulfilled then these secondary social institutions will not have a great influence on community life.

But on the other hand, when secondary social institutions are established and fulfilled then this institution is only considered as an adder or added value. Based on the context of space and time does not exclude the possibility that the community will consider secondary social institutions as a primary need according to them. An example of a secondary social institution is a tourism institution.

Primary social institutions can change over time into secondary social institutions due to changing mindsets in society that continues to grow. For example, traditional people think that formal education is not very important.

The assumption will make the educational institution as a primary social institution change into a secondary social institution for the traditional society that considers that formal education is not too important.

2. Social Board based on its Development

Based on the development of social institutions, the following are the types of social institutions that are divided into two.

a. Growing Social Institutions

Crescive social institutions are social institutions that accidentally grow and develop in society. This social institution is formed based on community behavior patterns that have experienced strong integration in the lives of community members.

The pattern of behavior over time and without realizing it will develop and become a custom. It is these customs that then become the next stage to form a good institution. Examples are marriage institutions, religious institutions, property rights institutions.

b. Enacted Social Institutions

Enacted social institutions are institutions that are deliberately formed to achieve a purpose. This institution originates from crescive social institutions that are equipped with structures and social systems in them. For example, such as economic institutions that have the function of regulating various forms of activities such as production and consumption activities in society.

3. Based on the Angle of Acceptance by Society

a. Approved or Socially Sanctioned Institutions

Approve socially sanctioned institutions are social institutions that are accepted and recognized for their existence by the local community. Examples are health agencies, transportation agencies and trade agencies.

b. Unsanctioned Social Institutions

Unsanctioned social board is the opposite of approved. This unsanctioned social institution is not recognized for its existence by the community because it is considered disturbing to members of the community. Examples are terrorism networks or groups that threaten society.

4. Social Board based on its Function

a. Operative Social Institutions are institutions that have the task of gathering patterns and ways to achieve the goals of an institution. Examples are agricultural boards, industrial boards and educational boards.

b. Regulative Social Institutions, are social institutions that have the task of overseeing customs in the community, for example, the court and the prosecutor’s office.

5. Social Board based on its Distribution

a. General Social Institutions

is a social institution that exists in almost all societies so that its nature is universal or comprehensive. This board can be accepted by the wider community and has a high value to be able to meet the needs of all elements in the community. For example, such as religious institutions.

b. Restricted Social Institutions

This restricted social institution is formed based on the interests of certain groups, classes and groups which can then develop a special characteristic and cannot be applied to other groups, groups or classes. An example is an institution that is a reflection of local wisdom in a region in customs such as the irrigation organization in Bali.

Still confused by the types of social institutions? Reader can also learn more about social institutions including their types through books available on Sinaumedia.com such as the IPS Premium Interest Book which presents material about these social institutions.

E. Types of Social Boards

Social institutions are divided into six types according to their respective functions. Here is a complete explanation.

1. Family Board

The family institution is the smallest social institution and is formed on the basis of marriage and blood relations between individuals. Although the family institution is the smallest institution, this family institution has a very large role in community life and is included in the primary social institution.

2. Board of Education

The education board is also a primary social institution that is recognized by the community and has a great influence on the life of the community. An educational institution is an institution where the educational process takes place with the aim of changing individual behavior for the better.

Educational institutions themselves are then divided into three, namely formal education, non-formal education and informal education. Copy that, the educational institution can also be said to be an extension institution after the family institution.

3. Economic Board

As with the previous two types of social institutions, economic institutions are institutions that have activities in the economic field to achieve the goal of meeting the needs of society. This economic institution is included in the social institution because it regulates the relationship between people in meeting basic needs.

4. Religious Board

A religious institution is an institution that regulates human life in religion, a religious institution is a system of beliefs and religious practices carried out by people who believe in the belief.

Religion is an important thing in human life to be able to balance human life between this world and the hereafter. Religious institutions are also primary social institutions that are recognized and can support the basic needs of the community.

5. Political Board

A political institution is an institution that has a form of activity in community groups with the process of its formation and the distribution of power determined by the community itself. The political body can be in the form of a government that has the role of maintaining peace and order and serving and protecting the community.

6. Cultural Board

A cultural institution is a public institution that exists in a country and plays a role in the development of culture, art, environment, science and education in society in a region or a country.

Cultural institutions in the form of non-governmental organizations or NGOs, associations, workshops are elements that have a role in the preservation of art and culture in the region or country.

F. Examples of Social Boards in Indonesia

Here are some examples of social institutions based on the types that have been explained before.

1. Social Board in the Field of Education

• Kindergarten (TK)
• Elementary School (SD)
• Junior High School (SMP)
• Senior High School (SMA)
• Madrasah Aliyah
• Vocational High School
• Playgroup (KB)
• Special Board

2. Social Board in the Economic Field

• Market
• Ministry of Commerce
• Ministry of Agriculture
• Ministry of Fisheries
• State Ministry of Cooperatives and UKM

3. Social Board in the Field of Culture

• Nusantara Culture Board Foundation
• Coal Art Care Board
• Board of Indonesian Muslim Cultural Artists
• Betawi Cultural Board
• LKN

4. Social Board in the Religious Field

• Council of Indonesian Scholars
• Federation of Indonesian Churches
• Indonesian Confucian High Council
• Indonesian Hindu Dharma Council
• Representative of Indonesian Buddhists

5. Social Board in the Political Field

• President and Vice President
• DPR
• MPR
• CPC
• M.A
• MK
• KY

6. Family Board

• KUA
• Religious Court
• Child Protection Board
• KPAI
• National Population and Family Planning Agency
• PKK
• Integrated Service Post
• Junior Band

Those are some examples of social institutions according to the types of social institutions. 

Definition of Financial Board – Reader friends, what comes to your mind when you hear the term Financial Board? Banks must be one of the financial institutions that come to mind, right?

More than that, do you know that the Financial Board is actually not only limited to banks. However, there are also various other forms.

The financial institution itself includes various business operations in the financial services sector which include banks, trust companies, insurance companies, brokerage companies, and investment traders.

In Indonesia, the Financial Board is divided into two groups. First, there are Bank Financial Institutions and the second group is Non-Bank Financial Institutions, such as insurance, pawnshops, pension funds, mutual funds, and stock exchanges.

In general, the Financial Board is very necessary in the modern economy because of its function as a mediator between groups of people who have excess funds and those who need funds. The Financial Board can serve many people in various ways.

Because financial operations are an important part of any economy. Both individuals and companies rely on the Financial Board to conduct transactions and investments.

Therefore, the government considers it important to supervise and regulate Banks and other Financial Institutions. Because the role of the Financial Board is very important and is an integral part of the economy. Historically, the bankruptcy of a Financial Institution can also cause panic.

In the Financial Board, we can find a wide range of product and service offerings for individuals and businesses. The specific services offered vary greatly among the various types of Financial Institutions available.

Of course, the most famous Financial Institution is the Bank, which is the first group of Financial Institutions to accept deposits, offer giro account services, make business, personal, and mortgage loans. In addition, the Bank offers basic financial products, such as certificates of deposit (CD) and savings accounts for individuals and small businesses. Banks are where many people do their banking activities.

Meanwhile, among other Non-Bank Financial Institutions. One of the most well-known institutions is an insurance company. Insurance is also available for individuals and corporations. Insurance itself is one of the oldest financial services in Indonesia.

Let us understand more about the Financial Board. Let’s take a look at the article below. Starting from its meaning according to experts, the function of the Financial Board, to its role in the economy.

Definition of Financial Board

The Financial Board is a business or institution in the field of financial services that operates by providing financial service facilities, collecting funds from the community, and channeling them back for funding to various financial activities that affect the way the economy runs. Not only that, the Financial Board also needs to rotate the flow of money in the economy by obtaining profit in the form of interest or percentage.

Business activities in the Financial Board are various, such as providing financial services, providing loans, capital participation, and so on. However, in its operations, the Financial Board only carries out one or two business activities at once.

Examples of fund collection processes carried out by Financial Institutions that are fairly conventional include, among others, the provision of fund storage services (savings) and examples of fund distribution process activities, namely the provision of loan (credit) services.

The establishment of a Financial Board must also follow the procedure according to the applicable Law. The Financial Services Authority and other institutions need to supervise the activities of various Financial Institutions. Strict supervision and regulation is required to create a healthy financial services business for the community.

However, there is still a lot more to understand from the Financial Board itself, you know. Here is the definition of Financial Board according to the experts.

The meaning of the Financial Board according to the Members

1. Law No. 14 of 1967 article 1 (replaced by Law No. 7/1992) on Banking

Based on the Law, the definition of the Financial Board is a business entity whose activities collect funds from the community and channel them back to the community.

2. SK Minister of Finance RI No. 792 of 1990

Meanwhile, the meaning of the Financial Board according to the Decree of the Minister of Finance is all bodies whose activities are in the field of finance, collecting and disbursing funds to the community. Mainly to finance corporate investment.

3. Big Indonesian Dictionary (KBBI)

In KBBI, the Financial Board is a body in the financial field that is tasked with attracting money and distributing it to the community.

4. Financial Services Authority (OJK)

According to OJK, the Financial Board is an institution that collects funds from the public and invests them in the form of other financial assets. For example, credit, securities, giro, and other productive assets that are included in Bank Financial Institutions and Non-Bank Financial Institutions.

5. Abdulkadir Muhammad

The Financial Board is a business entity that has wealth in the form of financial assets. The wealth is then used to run businesses in the field of financial services, both providing funds to finance productive businesses and consumptive needs, as well as non-financing financial services.

Functions of the Financial Board

The Financial Board has various functions that are closely related to the daily life of the community. His presence has a good impact on community life, so it becomes more quality.

However, the function of the Financial Board itself is quite different, depending on the type of institution. Even so, here are some functions of the Financial Board in general. Both Bank and Non-Bank Financial Institutions.

1. Provide a security guarantee for money storage

The Financial Board that stands under Indonesian law, of course all its activities will be supervised and its business activities must be in accordance with existing rules. One of the rules is to provide moral and legal guarantees to customers so that they feel safe and believe that their funds are kept intact. It will then be returned when the due date arrives, for example for savings deposits.

2. Provide information to customers

People who use the services of the Financial Board must obtain complete information about the financial products they use. Through the Financial Board, customers can receive information that has been provided and knowledge as clearly as possible for their interests.

For example, when a customer wants to take out a KPR product, the bank must provide information about the KPR product from A to Z. So that the customer understands how the KPR system applies there and can follow it properly.

3. Launch the exchange of products that use credit and cash

The Financial Board also functions to launch product exchange services that include goods and services using credit or cash systems. For example, customers who want to own a house can make payments through KPR through the Bank.

4. As a transaction tool for all activities

The Financial Board also serves to provide transaction tools that can be used anywhere for a variety of needs. For example, such as inter-bank transfers, daily bill payments, up to payments for shopping.

5. Provide financing for businesses and consumptive needs

In this regard, the Financial Board functions to collect community funds and then rotate them back, through loan products available for financing according to customer needs.

The community can use this financing service as needed and must meet certain conditions first. For example, customers who want to make their business bigger, apply for a productive loan at the Bank.

Types of Financial Institutions

Based on their type, Financial Institutions in Indonesia are divided into two types, namely Bank and Non-Bank Financial Institutions.

To find out more about the types of financial institutions, Reader can read the book Banks and Other Financial Institutions by clicking the following link.

1. Bank Finance Board

Bank Financial Institution ( depository financial institution ) is a Financial Institution that provides banking facilities and services for the community. Good in storage, payment, and giving of funds.

Simply put, the Bank Financial Board is a financial intermediary institution established with the authority to receive and collect money deposits, lend money, and issue banknotes.

2. Non-Bank Financial Board

Non-Bank Financial Institutions ( non-depository financial institutions ) or Non-Bank Financial Institutions (LKBB) are financial institutions that carry out the process of raising funds by issuing securities.

In addition, the Non-Bank Board also provides various financial services and withdraws funds from the community either as a deposit or indirectly.

Some examples of Financial Institutions that are not Banks, among others are leasing companies , insurance companies, venture capital companies, pension fund companies, securities exchanges, pawnshops, mutual funds, and others.

Examples of Bank Financial Boards

1. Central Bank

The Central Bank is responsible for stabilizing the monetary system in a country. Each country has a Central Bank. In Indonesia, the Central Bank that is relied upon is Bank Indonesia. Of course, Bank Indonesia must always ensure the value of the Rupiah currency is stable, in order to provide stability to the community’s economy as well.

2. Commercial Bank (General Bank)

Commercial Banks are also known as Public Banks, which are business entities that provide banking services to the community conventionally or with the Sharia system. Commercial banks provide financial services, such as savings, deposits, giro, mortgages, multi-purpose credit, and others.

3. People’s Credit Bank (BPR)

BPR is a bank that accepts savings in the form of term deposits, provides loans and other financial services to communities in remote areas. Therefore, BPR is usually in rural areas and other locations that are far from the center.

Examples of Non-Bank Financial Institutions

In addition to bank financial institutions, the following are examples of non-bank financial institutions that Reader can read more about in the book Banks and Non-Bank Financial Institutions (Theory and Application) by clicking the following link.

1. Insurance Company

In insurance companies, of course, they provide protection services to their customers. In order to get that protection, the customer is required to pay the premium according to the provisions. Customers can also get various kinds of protection, starting from soul protection, health-related protection, protection when traveling, and others.

2. Pawnshop

Pawnshops are Non-Bank Financial Institutions that provide credit with guarantees. People can get loans on the condition that they guarantee their property. Examples of property that can be guaranteed are jewelry, electronic devices, motor vehicles, and others.

3. Capital Market (Stock Exchange)

The capital market is also one of the main types of Non-Bank Financial Institutions. Through the capital market, customers can transact using securities, such as shares, bonds or bonds, to mutual funds.

From that transaction, the customer will later be able to reap abundant profits. To be able to enter it, customers must first register through securities or investment managers.

4. Savings and Loan Cooperatives

Cooperatives are Non-Bank Financial Institutions that provide savings and loan services to their members with relatively low interest, thus freeing the community from loan sharks and being able to manage money more productively.

Financial Board Benefits

From the several examples of Financial Boards above, of course all Boards that operate in the financial field have benefits for society and the economy.

1. Simplify transactions by being cross payment

The most important benefit of Financial Institutions is to provide convenience and security in financial transactions. For example, to cross daily bill payments, inter-bank transfers, money transfers abroad, to shopping transactions. Even the public can now make transactions easily through the banking application, so there is no need to come to the office directly.

2. Providing cash with ATM withdrawal

One of the benefits of the Financial Institution for the next community, namely the benefit of liquidity which means providing cash and guaranteed authenticity. The withdrawal of cash can be done at the nearest ATM.

3. Transferring assets for profit

The Financial Board is a body that can transfer financial assets for specific needs. For example, giving loans to other customers. The funds will always be rotated so that the Financial Board can survive or make a profit.

4. Relocation of income for use in the future

The Financial Board becomes a safe place for the relocation of customers’ income. Customers can also use funds at certain Financial Institutions for the future. For example, saved for retirement preparations or for children’s education.

The role of the Financial Board in the Economy

As an integral or inseparable part of the economy. Here is the important role of the Financial Board.

1. Financial institutions such as the Central Bank have a role as printers of rupiah money which is used as a legal means of payment, with the aim of facilitating financial transactions between people in the macro economy of a country.
2. The Financial Board of Commercial Banks has the duty to issue checks that are useful to facilitate transactions made by customers.
3. The Financial Board can also act as a broker, broker, or dealer tasked to increase efficiency between both parties and customers.
4. The Financial Board also plays a role in helping the channeling of funds from the household sector to borrowers, unlimitedly and without the knowledge of the fund owner. Transaction costs and information costs themselves are lower, compared to if the borrower has to search and do the transaction directly.
5. The Financial Board also has a role to reduce the risk of loss that may be experienced by fund owners or savers. The loss in question is not paying back the customer’s savings, where this will not happen due to the Financial Board’s strategy in arranging various fund allocations.

Conclusion

From the explanation above, we can simply conclude that the Financial Board is a body that provides financial services that we need every day. Reader friends can also choose it according to their needs. In choosing a Financial Board, make sure to choose the best and legal one to facilitate various financial activities Teman Reader yes.

This is a commentary on the meaning of financial institutions , their functions, types, and benefits. 

Definition of the Legal Authority – When we hear the word law, our thoughts immediately lead to illegal actions that result in the perpetrator having to deal with the authorities. There is no harm in thinking that way, because the law was created to regulate the life of the community and must be obeyed. The consequences of breaking the law are various, some of which are so avoided by the people around them that they end up behind bars.

In organizing and making legal regulations, it cannot be done individually and establish them unilaterally, but it is necessary to participate from several parties who finally express a joint decision in the formation of the legal regulations.

Law enforcement itself therefore creates a legal institution that has the main task of maintaining legal stability in a country. The legal body functions so that each individual is not arbitrary in acting because all actions performed have legal rewards according to the level of crime committed.

Well, for Reader friends wherever you are, the importance of a legal institution in regulating legal stability in a country is very important, for that it is very important to know what legal institutions exist in Indonesia and what authority they have in deciding a law.

Further discussion on the meaning of legal institutions can be seen below!

Meaning of Law Board

A legal institution is an institution that has the power of law and is tasked with upholding legal justice in court. There are many law enforcement agencies. It must be emphasized again that compliance with the law means objectivity and inaccuracy. All groups of people are equal before the law. Unlike those who only run for office because they have the opportunity to break the law. The following is the Indonesian legal system.

The legal system in the Indonesian Language Dictionary (KBBI) is a pattern of human behavior formed that consists of structured social interaction within a framework of meaningful values. While customary rules or laws are considered officially binding and approved by public or government authorities; Laws, procedures, etc. organizing social life in the community; Benchmarks (rules, regulations) for certain events (nature, etc.); the decision (deliberation) of the judge (in court); Evaluation.

Therefore, the legal institution is a social institution whose duty is to fulfill the rules of order for members of society, both written and unwritten, so that it is considered as a centralistic institution and applies universally. Legal institutions were created to fulfill society’s expectations for justice. Because the judiciary can provide certainty and justice and guarantee the community a peaceful and secure life.

Therefore, legal institutions are considered capable of meeting the social system related to social norms that are directly related to procedures or the importance of certain values ​​to meet the basic needs of society. Because the existence of this judicial institution is able to present facilities for the community in carrying out various activities in their lives.

Functions of the Law Board

Social institutions related to law have roles and functions including:

• Protection of community members, judicial authorities protect members of the community and the possibility of crime. Protection of the community can be done with the help of various regulations. The protection of legal institutions can be preventive and repressive to create social order.

• The maintenance of the rule of law by the legal institution as a social institution has its own rules of the game that must be implemented. The purpose is for the legal institution to remain strong in society.

• In order to organize sanctions so that society obeys the law, social control is needed. Legal institutions as a tool of social control play a role in preventing the spread of deviant behavior in society.

• Giving guidance about community behavior, in Indonesia one type of legal institution is the police, which has the power to enforce rules, for example in this case traffic regulations, which play a role in giving guidance about community traffic. With this guide you can create order and peace together.

• As a tool to change society’s behavior Another task of the judiciary is to change society’s behavior that is not appropriate through good means (persuasion) or violence. The expected behavior is behavior that is in accordance with the legal norms that implement the social order.

Dimensions of Law Enforcement

There are three dimensions that must be observed in law enforcement, including:

• The application of law is considered as a normative system (standard system), that is, the application of law that reflects the social values ​​that all witnesses to criminal acts are imbued with.

• Law enforcement should be seen as an administrative system that includes interaction between various police agencies, which is a subsystem of the judiciary mentioned above.

• The application of criminal law is a social system in the sense that the definition of a crime must take into account the differences of opinion that apply to all levels of society.

Law Enforcement Factors

The factors that affect law enforcement, according to Soerjono Soekanto are as follows:

1. Legal Factors

In the field of criminal prosecution, there are sometimes conflicts about legal certainty and justice, because the concept of law is an abstract formulation, while legal certainty is a normatively determined process.

Therefore, a policy or action that is not entirely based on the law is allowed as long as the policy or action does not violate the law. Therefore, law enforcement does not only include law enforcement, but also peace, because law enforcement is a process of forming values ​​and behavior to build peace.

2. Law Enforcement Factors

An important role is played by the mind or personality of the official in the implementation of the law, if the rules are good, but the quality of the official is not good, the problem is clearly not solved. Therefore, one of the keys to the success of the police is the mindset and personality of the law.

3. Institutional factors and supporting services

Supporting means and facilities include software and hardware, for example software is training. The training received by police officers currently tends to be routine, so that many police officers encounter obstacles to achieving their goals, including knowledge of computer crimes and specific crimes that are currently included in the scope of the prosecution.

Because the policy is technically and legally incompetent and not ready. Although it is known that the duties that the police must perform are very broad and diverse.

4. Community Factors

Law enforcement of course comes from within the community and strives to create and promote peace in the community. Every person or group at least has an awareness of the law, the next problem that arises is the level of compliance ie. high, moderate and poor adherence. There is a level of law enforcement itself. And this is an indication of the effectiveness of the relevant law.

5. Cultural factors

According to Soerjono Soekanto, culture has such a great task for society, which is to organize so that people know how to act, act and determine their attitude towards others. Therefore, culture is the basic line of behavior that establishes rules about what should be done and what is prohibited.

Indonesian law enforcement agencies based on law

In addition to the term “law enforcement” in the Advocate Law, there are other terms related to the term “law enforcement”. Law enforcement agencies and their responsibilities are found among others in the following regulations.

• Article 2 of UU 2/2002 states that the duty of the police is one of the duties of state administrators in the field of maintaining public order and security, law enforcement, protection, protection, and service to the community.
• According to Article 101(6) UU 8/1995, Bapepam (Capital Market Authority) can request assistance from law enforcement agencies, the police, the Immigration Service and the Ministry in connection with the implementation of its investigative powers. prosecutors and prosecutors.

• Article 49(3)(i) of the OJK Law states that Financial Services Authority officials have the authority to request assistance from law enforcement agencies. Then what is meant by “other law enforcement agencies” is the prosecutor’s office and the police. and the court. Article 2 of the Constitutional Court Law states that the Constitutional Court is one of the state institutions that exercise independent jurisdiction in the administration of justice to strengthen law and justice.

• PP 16/2018 paragraph 1 item 2 explains that the State Servant Policy (Pol PP) is a member of the Satpol PP as a regional government unit that has an office and gets duties, responsibilities, and authority in accordance with the laws and regulations in the administration of government. district regulations and district director. Order, enforcement of public order and peace and community protection.

Examples of the Law Board in Indonesia

A legal institution is an institution that has the power of law and is tasked with upholding legal justice in court. There are many law enforcement agencies. It must be emphasized again that compliance with the law means objectivity and inaccuracy. All groups of people are equal before the law. Unlike those who only run for office because they have the opportunity to break the law.

The following are Indonesian legal institutions:

1. National Police of the Republic of Indonesia

One of the members of the muspika is the police, this first institution is recognized by the city government. Its existence is directly related to the community within the National Police of the Republic of Indonesia, there are many units. For example, the Cybercrime Unit that protects the public from illegal crimes in the cyber world, and SATLANTAS (Traffic Unit) that regulates traffic on public roads.

The government decided to hand over police duties. This means that its existence is also guaranteed by the government. Law No. 2 of 2002 about the National Police of the Republic of Indonesia:

Stated: “The duty of the police is one of the duties of the national government in maintaining the security and order of the community, policing, protection, protection, and service to the community.”

Polri also usually participates in the continuity of other national institutions. For example, assisting the Financial Services Authority (OJK) and other General Managers who need legal advice. The presence of police is widespread from the central level to the districts.

There is a police unit in the area, commonly called Satpol PP (Pamong Praja Police Unit). This unit usually destroys law and order in the community to keep community life in a safe and peaceful area. PP Satpol actions which are often taken over by illegal Street Vendors (PKL) and GePeng (vagrants and beggars) who destroy urban planning and public facilities often attract media attention.

2. Constitutional Court

MK or the Constitutional Court adjudicates legal cases at the court table. This board holds a very important role in law enforcement. The reason is simple, the judiciary is the boss who decides how to proceed with matters, especially in disputes where there is no jurisprudence.

The existence of the Constitutional Court was confirmed in 2003 by including articles about the Constitutional Court into the law. Law Number 24 of 2003, ratified in August of the same year, regulates the Constitutional Court. To understand who the Constitutional Court is dealing with, read the following description:

1. Constitutional judge

A judge is a person who has the authority to adjudicate a matter. Constitutional Court judges can serve for two terms of office, each term of office is five years (Read:

jurisdiction of the Constitutional Court). There are 9 constitutional judges, each consisting of:

• 3 people are elected by the Supreme Court
• 3 people are elected by the House of Representatives (DPR).
• 3 people are chosen by the President

2. Head of the Constitutional Court

• The Chief of the Constitutional Court is the person who leads the Constitutional Court.
• The constitutional judge elects the Chief of the Constitutional Court for a term of three years

3. Supreme Court

The Supreme Court has a high position in the Indonesian legal system. The Supreme Court deals with cases at the Supreme Court level. The duties and functions of the Supreme Court are also different according to the law. Meanwhile, there are several levels of justice as follows:

• first level: in the state court
• Second level: to be dealt with by the high court
• third level: to be dealt with by the Supreme Court

The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court covers several areas. From the scope of common law to the military. Because of its jurisdiction over cassation, the Supreme Court also has the authority to advise the president on amnesty and rehabilitation. The composition of the Supreme Court is as follows:

• Supreme Court Candidate: Supreme Court candidate is a candidate submitted to the DPR by the Judicial Commission (KY). However, confirmation is done by the President.
• Supreme Court Judges: This has a maximum of 60 members who can be selected based on their legal career or academic expertise.
• Chief Justice of the Supreme Court: The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is just one of the judges of the Supreme Court. In addition, the head position can also be directly proposed by the president based on their career and experience in law.

4. Military High Court

There are several levels of military justice. In fact, the military court represents the judicial authority in the armed forces. His position is considered on the basis of national security. The military justice environment is also classified according to its level as follows:

• There is a basic military court in the city where KODAM is located
• The Class B Military Court is located in the city where KOREM is located

Meanwhile, military justice graduates have the following hierarchy:

1. High Military Court

The defendants in this trial are soldiers with the rank of major. In this process, 5 people will be judges.

• 1 leader
• 2 members
• 1 senior military inspector (the prosecutor has the same functions and duties as the prosecutor in the field of prosecution)
• 1 clerk

2. Main General Court

Cases appearing before the military high court and on appeal are dealt with here. In short, the court under the Supreme Court is a continuation of the Military High Court. The location is also in the capital of Indonesia. The composition of the members is as follows:

• 1 Chief (minimum rank of Brigadier General or Marshal and First Admiral)
• 2 members (minimum rank of colonel)
• 1 officer (major rank – colonel)

Conclusion

So much for a short discussion about the definition from the legal institution. This discussion does not only discuss the definition of legal institutions but also discusses further the functions, dimensions, laws that regulate legal institutions, law enforcement factors, as well as examples of legal institutions in Indonesia.

Understanding the meaning of legal institutions gives us additional knowledge about various legal institutions in Indonesia as well as knowing their functional role in maintaining legal stability.

Such is the commentary on the meaning of legal institutions. 

Understanding Ecology

If you discuss about natural science, surely you must know about ecosystems, right? Well, in addition to the ecosystem, you too have certainly heard of ecology, right? Yes, ecology is one part of the branch of science that studies the interaction of living things with their environment.

The term from ecology itself is often considered as a foreign term and rarely heard by the community. In fact, there are some people who think that ecology and ecosystem are different meanings.

Ecology was first introduced by a German biologist named Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel. Long name, isn’t it? Yep, you can call him Ernst Haeckel.

If viewed epistemologically (science), the word ecology comes from the Greek language, namely oikos and logos. The word Oikos has the meaning of habitat, while the word logos has the meaning of knowledge.

So, if studied further, ecology has the meaning as one of the sciences that studies the relationship between organisms (living things) and their environment. The meaning is very diverse according to how experts interpret it.

Yep, as explained before, that ecology is one of the branches of science in biology. According to the historical records, for the first time the science of ecology was used by a German biologist named Ernst Haeckel in 1896. Since then, the discussion about ecology began to be widely discussed in the world of education.

Anthony van Leeuwenhoek is one example of a figure known for his studies of food chains and population regulation. In addition, it turns out that since thousands of years ago famous figures such as Hippocrates, Aristotle, and also other Greek philosophers have written some material that is now included in the field of ecology. 

In some books, ecology itself has been interpreted as a science that studies the relationship in the form of interaction between an organism and nature or can also be with the surrounding environment.

Ecology itself has its own scope and what is included in the scope of ecology is population, community, ecosystem, up to the biosphere. As explained earlier, that ecology is one of the biological sciences that studies the interaction between organisms and nature and the surrounding environment. 

Therefore, ecology is also closely related to ecosystems. In the Big Indonesian Dictionary or KBBI, there is the term ecosystem ecology which has the meaning as an analysis that is viewed from a structural and also functional point of view, and includes the relationship between biotic and abiotic. 

Meanwhile, as reported by The Ecological Society of America, ecology is a science that seeks to study and explain the importance of the relationship between living things and the surrounding environment, including the benefits of ecosystems for living things. 

From the explanation that has been presented above, it can be concluded that ecology is a science that studies the relationship between living things (judging from their interactions) with their environment. Ecology also has an important role in aspects of human life.

Why? Because ecology has a scope that also includes ecosystems. Therefore, this article will discuss in more detail about the scope of ecology. Here is the explanation.

Scope of Ecological Science

Ecology in general studies the interaction of organisms with the living environment around them. The scope of ecology is basically limited to several things, such as individuals, populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere.

1. Individuals

The first scope of ecology is the Individual. Yes, as you know that an individual is a unit of organism of each type or even a certain species that exists in an environment. How about an example from an individual? Examples are humans, a bird, a deer, and others.

2. Population

The second scope is population. Where the population is a group of individuals of the same type that exist in a certain place and at a certain time. The simple language can be explained as a combination of several individuals of the same type that are in one place.

What is the sample from the population? For example, the population is the population of humans, the population of birds, the population of grass, and there are many other populations that you can find in your surroundings.

3. Community

Community is one of the scope of ecology. Community is understood as a group of living beings that consists of several populations in it and interact with each other in a certain place and time.

An example of a community, for example, is a grassland community. In grassland communities there are various types of populations. There are grass populations, grasshopper populations, bird populations, snake populations, and various other populations.

4. Ecosystem

The scope of the fourth ecology is the ecosystem. Well, if you previously knew the ecosystem as ecology. It means you are wrong. Why? Because ecosystems are part of the scope of ecology.

Ecosystem itself is understood as a condition where there is a reciprocal relationship and also an interdependent relationship between a living being and its environment. 

For example, the easiest ecosystems for you to know are forests and seawater ecosystems. All individuals in the forest and also the sea interact with each other and depend on each other.

5. Biosphere

Maybe you rarely hear the word biosphere. However, at the level of biological organization, the biosphere is the largest level and also contains all life on earth. 

In the biosphere there are also all the interactions between the physical environment as a whole.

6. Landscape

The sixth scope of ecology is landscape or commonly known as landscape ecology. This landscape has a focus on the factors that control the circulation of energy, matter, and also organisms in an ecosystem.

7. Global

The global scope relies on a regional energy exchange and also the influence of matter on function, as well as the distribution of organisms at the highest level, namely the biosphere.

Aspects & Principles of Ecology

After knowing the meaning and also the scope of ecology, then in this discussion you will be informed about the aspects and principles of ecology that must be observed. 

Without further ado, let’s check out the explanation below.

Key Aspects of Ecology

Some important aspects in studying ecology are as follows.

• The study of the relationship between organisms or groups of organisms with their environment.
• The study of the interaction of organisms or groups of organisms with their environment.
• Study about the structure and function of nature.

Key Principles of Ecology

As for the main principles of ecology. Principles in ecology include the following.

• There is an interaction
• There is an attitude of mutual dependence ( interdependence )
• There is diversity in it ( diversity )
• There is a harmony
• The existence of sustainable capabilities ( sustainability )

Ecological Benefits

Ecology itself has benefits for the environment. In this discussion is an explanation of the benefits of ecology for the environment. Let’s read and understand the explanation below.

1. Know Biodiversity

Ecological science also provides benefits to humans as a way to understand various living things as well as the relationship between living things and their environment.

For example, ecology helps humans to understand how a camel can survive in a very dry and high temperature environment. Another example is that humans can understand how a penguin can survive in an environment that has very low temperatures such as the poles.

2. Knowing the Behavior of Living Beings

If the previous benefit is to know biodiversity. Therefore, the science of ecology also provides benefits to humans to be able to recognize the behavior of living beings and how they relate or interact with the environment. 

What is an example of the benefits of knowing the behavior of living beings? An example is a sonar system on submarines that mimics the senses of bats and dolphins.

By imitating the behavior of the two animals, humans can take advantage of that and develop it as technology from submarines that function to determine targets or locations.

3. Knowing the Role of Humans on the Environment

The third benefit is a benefit that can be said to be one of the reflection materials of human actions and discoveries. Ecology also makes people more aware of the role of humans in their environment. 

As an example is DDT products. This product is used for the purpose of eradicating pests, it turns out that this product can even pollute the human environment and also other organisms. With the help of ecological science, people can know about products that are useful for them, but also know the impact.

4. Food Consumption Mapping

Ecology is also useful for mapping food consumption and knowing the structure and scale of food from every living creature on this earth. For example, plants as creatures are categorized as producers and herbivores as level I consumers.

In addition, there are carnivorous animals that rank as level II consumers and also humans as level III consumers. After that, there are still more decomposers and also the results of the decomposition are consumed again by producers as one of the energy sources.

This is commonly referred to as the life cycle and food chain. You know, right?

5. Solutions to Agricultural Problems

Ecological knowledge can also solve various problems in the world of agriculture. A farmer apparently needs some microbes that can produce nitrates and also ammonium to maintain soil fertility. Well, this is the result of knowledge from ecological science. Isn’t it amazing? 

6. Solution to Energy Problems

Ecological knowledge is also useful to help humans to ensure the availability of energy that works to support their lives. For example is the use of alternative energy from solar energy that has the purpose of producing electricity.

7. Solutions to Health Problems

The last benefit of ecological science is to help people solve various problems related to health. Through ecology, humans can learn about various diseases that have never been discovered before. One of them is dengue or dengue fever.

Ecology found that dengue or dengue fever is caused by the Aedes Aegypti mosquito. This condition can certainly be overcome with certain handling methods. One of them is by draining the water reservoir.

This is done so that there is no nest for mosquitoes to breed by not laying eggs in puddles.

Ecological Type

After discussing the benefits that have been revealed about ecological science on human life, it turns out that ecological science has several types. In this discussion, we will look at the types of ecology. 

Without further ado, let’s take a look and pay attention to the explanation of the types of ecology below.

There are several types of ecological science that have been applied in various aspects of human life, namely:

• Human ecology is a branch of ecology that has a focus on learning about human environmental conditions.
• Plant ecology is a branch of ecological science that studies plants as an organism and also centers the plant itself as a main focus, ignoring animals and humans.
• Animal ecology is a branch of ecology that has a central focus on animals as an organism, and ignores humans and plants.
• Aquatic ecology, which is one of the branches of ecological science that studies and finds out the relationship between organisms and the aquatic environment, such as rivers, reservoirs, estuaries, and even the sea.
• Habitat ecology is a branch of ecological science that focuses on discussing the nature of a habitat.
• Population ecology is a branch of ecology that focuses on studying various relationships between groups of organisms and the number of individuals. Population ecology also studies and finds out about the factors that determine the size of a population and its spread.
• Social ecology is a branch of ecological science that studies and finds out about the relationship between humans and the natural environment as well as the technology around them.
• Language ecology is an ecological science that studies and also conducts research on a relationship between language and the human environment.
• Space ecology is an ecological science that studies the ecosystems that can support all human life during space flight.
  

   

   

Well, that’s it from this article. It turns out that ecology is a very extraordinary science. Proven from the various benefits that can help people in their daily lives and also for the needs of the environment.

Hopefully by reading this article, you will have a better understanding of the ecological science that has been discussed above. Hopefully, with this article, you will be able to distinguish between ecosystem and ecology.

This is an article that discusses ecology, starting from the meaning, aspects and principles, scope, benefits, and also the types of ecology.

If you want to find other articles and discuss about knowledge that you have not yet understood, you can find it on the Sinaumedia site. Just visit www.Sinaumedia.com . You can get a variety of interesting information.

So, don’t forget to read it, Reader #SahabatTanpaBatas! Start from simple things so that you can get used to reading and can improve literacy in Indonesia. 

Oh yes, by reading, you can improve and train your imagination. In addition, you can also add a lot of interesting and cool new vocabulary. So, let’s get used to always reading. Happy reading for all Reader.

Legislative Understanding – In the process of forming a country, the founders or founding fathers tried to find a standard form for the government system. This is done with the aim of developing and developing the quality of the country. We can conclude that the country must meet the components that have high potential to build the integrity of the country. Usually, it is the basic components that have the function as a foundation to build a country. The components are the form of the country, the form of government, and also the government system.

The process in this government system has various uses and functions for the country. This government system has a very important role in a country. Without a government system, the country will be in chaos, because the country has not determined who will be the leader of the country, who will hold the highest power, and the country has not yet known who will be the representative of the people, and so on. The self-government system is divided into three, among others the executive, legislative, and judiciary. In this article, we will explain the meaning of legislation in more depth.

Legislative Meaning

The legislative body is a government body that has a general function in making laws. Where this legislative body has several functions, namely the function of legislation and also the function of control. In Indonesia itself, the legislative body is the House of Representatives or DPR and also the House of District Representatives or DPD.

1. DPR or House of Representatives

Generally, DPR members come from political parties that are directly elected by the people through the election process. This DPR is located at the central level, while those at the provincial and regency/city level are the DPRD or the District House of Representatives. The following are some of the duties and authorities that must be performed by DPR members, as follows:

a. Forming laws that have been discussed together with the President
b. Giving consent on district regulations replacing Law
c. Receive and also discuss the problems of the Bill or Draft Law submitted by the DPD
d. Considering the DPD on the draft APBN Law related to taxes, education, and also religion
e. Setting the APBN or the National Income and Expenditure Budget together with the President by taking into account considerations from the DPD
f. Select members of the Financial Inspection Body with consideration from the DPD
g. Select three candidates for constitutional judges and submit them to the President and others

In carrying out their duties and also their authority, DPR members also have certain rights, among others:

a. Interpellation Right, which is the right to ask the President for information.
b. Questionnaire Rights, which is the right used to submit Draft Laws to the government.
c. The Right of Initiative, which is the right to submit a Draft Law to the government.
d. Amendment Right, which is the right to make changes to the Draft Law.
e. Budget Right, which is the right used to submit the RAPBN or National Income and Expenditure Budget Plan.
f. The right to Petition, which is the right used to ask questions about government policy.

Meanwhile, in Article 20A of the 1945 Constitution, DPR holds the highest power in forming legislation. Therefore, DPR has 3 important functions, among others:

a. Legislative function, namely DPR as a law maker together with the President.
b. Budget function, namely the DPR as the holder of power in determining the APBN proposed by the President.
c. Oversight function, namely the House of Representatives supervises the running of the government.

The DPR conducts a session at least once a year.

2. District Representative House or DPD

DPD members are made up of representatives from the provinces who have been selected through the election process. The membership of the DPD is formalized by the President’s decision and is located in the electoral district. Where DPD members do not come from political parties, but from community organizations. The tenure of DPD members is five years.

Based on Article 22D of the 1945 Constitution, DPD members have the following authority, among others:

1. Submitting Draft Laws to the DPR related to regional autonomy, regional central relations, formation, expansion, and regional mergers, natural resource management, as well as regional central finance.
2. Give consideration to members of the DPR on the Draft APBN Law and also the Bill related to taxes, education, and also religion.
3. Supervise the implementation of those matters and report them to DPR.

Functions of the National Board: Executive and Judiciary

The following is an explanation of the functions of state institutions other than legislative institutions, namely the executive and also the judiciary. Below is a complete explanation.

1. Executive Board

This executive board is a board that functions to implement the laws that have been set by the legislative board. In countries that adhere to a democratic government system, generally the executive board consists of the head of state, be it the king or the president, accompanied by his ministers. In Indonesia itself, the members of the executive board are the MPR or the People’s Consultative Assembly, the President, and also the Vice President, as well as the ministers.

a. MPR or People’s Consultative Assembly

Before the 1945 Constitutional Amendment, the sovereignty in the hands of the people was fully exercised by the MPR. Therefore, the MPR is often referred to as the highest institution of the country with authority under the Constitution. However, after the 1945 Constitutional Amendment, people’s sovereignty is no longer exercised by the MPR, but is exercised according to the Basic Law.

MPR members are a combination of members of the DPR or House of Representatives and also the DPD or District House of Representatives who are elected by the people directly through the election process. The provisions regarding the number of members are regulated in the law. The MPR holds a session at least once in five years. The MPR’s most visible authority is appointing the President and Vice President who have been elected by the people through elections.

Based on Article 3 paragraph 1 in the 1945 Constitution, the MPR has the following duties and authorities:

a. Change and establish legislation
b. Appoint the president and vice president
c. Dismiss the president and also the vice president during their term of office according to the Basic Law

Members of the MPR, in carrying out their duties and authority, have certain rights, namely:

a. Submitting motions related to changes in articles in legislation
b. Determine the attitude and also the choice in the decision-making process
c. Choosing and being chosen
d. Defending himself
e. Immunity or the right to continue to carry out his duties and authority without being sued from court
f. Protocol or the right to obtain respect in respect of his office
g. Financial and also administrative

b. President

Before the 1945 Constitutional Amendment, the president and his representative were elected by the MPR. However, after the 1945 Constitutional Amendment, the president and his representative were elected by the people directly through the election process. The president and vice president will serve for five years and can be re-elected only once in the next general election. The president is the head of state and also the head of government. As a head of state, the president has the duties and authority set out in the 1945 Constitution, among others:

a. Making agreements with other countries with the approval of the DPR or House of Representatives
b. Appointing ambassadors and consuls to be placed in the capital of other countries and also in Indonesia
c. Receiving ambassadors from other countries
d. Giving titles, marks of service, and also marks of honor to nationals, whether they are Indonesian nationals or foreign nationals who have already served.

While as the head of government that runs the country’s government, the President has the following rights and obligations:

a. Holding government power based on the 1945 Constitution
b. Submitting Draft Laws to DPR
c. Set government regulations
d. Upholding and implementing the Basic Law
e. Granting pardon or forgiveness to convicts and also rehabilitation or restoration of the good name of an accused person based on the consideration of the Supreme Court: MA
f. Granting amnesty or reduction of convicts’ sentences as well as abolition or cancellation of criminal charges based on the DPR’s consideration.

In addition to serving and acting as the head of state and also the head of government, the president is also the supreme commander in the armed forces. So as to have the following authority:

a. Declaring war and also making peace with other countries on the basis of DPR approval
b. Making international agreements based on DPR approval
c. Declaring the state of danger to a condition and also a situation that is taking place in the country.

2. Judicial Board

This judicial body is a government body that has the authority to interpret the content of the law and also to sanction violations of its implementation. In its implementation, this one board must be free from interference from the executive board. This is intended so that the enforcement of law and justice is not one-sided or too partisan.

1. Supreme Court or MA

The Board of the Supreme Court or MA is one of the holders of the highest judicial authority from all judicial circles. Where the MA board is headed by the Chief Justice who is assisted by several other judges. The Supreme Judge was proposed by the DPR from the Judicial Commission. This MA board has several obligations and also its own authority, among others:

1. Judging at the level of cassation, testing legal regulations, and also other authority given by the Law.
2. Nominate three members of the constitutional judge.
3. Give consideration to rehabilitation and also pardon proposed by the President.

2. Constitutional Court or MK

The Board of the Supreme Court has the authority to exercise judicial power in the sphere of general justice, military, religion, and also the administration of the State. The Constitutional Court has the authority to adjudicate at the first and last level. In the MK, there are nine constitutional judges who have been appointed by the President. The following are the duties and functions of the Constitutional Court, among others:

1. Test the law on the Basic Law
2. Decide on disputes over the authority of national institutions whose authority is given by the Basic Law
3. Decide on the dissolution of political parties
4. Decide on disputes about election results

3. Judicial Commission or KY

The Judicial Commission Board was formed to oversee the behavior of judges and also dirty practices in the judicial administration process. In the 1945 Constitution as amended, the position of the Judicial Commission is independent and its existence is formed and dismissed by the President with the approval of the DPR.

Such is the explanation of the meaning of the legislature and other national institutions in Indonesia. Hopefully useful.

Meaning of Relay Running – Relay running is one of the friendly sports branches in the community. This relay race is often done in physical education lessons at school. Students will practice and even run a relay race.

In doing so, high concentration is required. In addition, running speed should also be considered because it is an important thing. As well as requiring excellent team coordination between one runner and another runner who is a teammate. This is done to obtain maximum results.

Previously, what is the meaning of relay running? This article will discuss the sport of relay running. Starting from the understanding of relay running, history, types of races to the techniques needed.

Meaning of Relay Run

What is the meaning of relay running? Relay runs are also often referred to as relay runs. The reason is that relay runs are done in a continuous manner.

Therefore, a relay race is a race that is done in groups. Generally there can be 2 to 4 people in the group. Everyone in the group will get a turn to finish.

Then, what is the meaning of relay running? Relay running is one of the sports of running. Relay running is one of the athletic branches.

As explained earlier, the relay runs will be played alternately. Therefore, this relay race requires a team. Teams or groups are used to pass the baton, from one runner to the next.

In the relay race number, there is a specificity. The specificity will not be found in other birth numbers. That is to move the stick while running quickly.

The baton transfer will happen to the next runner from the previous runner. In a big competition, generally team members or groups consist of 4 people. This relay running sport looks easy if we observe it.

However, actually not only technique is needed in relay running. However, there are some other things that should also be considered. Such as the speed between runners, agility and skill.

Those things are certainly important in giving or receiving a stick. The place or zone used to move the stick has also been determined. The adjustment between distance and speed should also be noted by every runner.

The Meaning of Relay According to the Experts

The following is the meaning of relay running according to some experts:

1. KBBI (Big Indonesian Dictionary)

In KBBI, the word relay goes into the athletic category. The meaning of the relay is a double race by dividing the distance between the participants. At the end of the part, each person hands over an object (for example a stick or a flag) to the next participant.

2. Guthrie (2008)

The meaning of relay running is a run that combines two things. It is a combination of speed coordination with the cooperation of the runner team. The purpose is to help complete the tasks that have been given. The task of this is a stick.

3. Irwansyah (2006)

According to Irwansyah, the meaning of a relay race is a run performed by four athletes. Relay runs are used using batons. Relay sticks used in relay races are generally made of fiberglass or wood.

4. Moh. Crazy(2007)

The meaning of relay running according to Moh. Gilang is one of the numbers in the running race. At the athletic competition should be done alternately or alternately. In a relay team, there are four runners.

The four runners are runner 1, runner 2, runner 3, and runner 4. They will move sticks to each other while running. It starts from the first runner, until the next runner.

History of Relay Running

After knowing the meaning of relay running, the history of relay running will be discussed further. Apparently, relay running has been around for a long time. The relay running movements have been done before.

Some of the movements in the relay race include walking, running, throwing, catching and jumping. The movement is of course often performed by humans in their daily activities.

The year this sport started is not certain. However, this relay sport started because it was inspired by the story of the 3 tribes. The tribes are the Aztecs, the Incas and the Maya.

The movements are performed by the tribes in completing a mission. The three bangs aini tribes use a technique, namely the continuous running technique. The purpose is to convey an important news that has been known for a long time.

The relay race is inspired by how to complete those missions. The people of the Ancient Greeks also used objects in the form of torches that were given continuously. It was done during the ancestral worship ritual.

In addition, also continue the sacred fire to his new jurisdiction. Since there is a ritual tradition that uses torch fire as a relay, the Ancient Greeks began to recognize it as a sport. In addition, the Ancient Greeks also had a competition or Olympics about the relay, they called it the Olympic flame.

In a race, Olympics or championship, the type of relay running that is often done is the 4 x 100 meter relay. In addition, the 4 x 400 meter category is also contested quite often. However, there are also some who organize relay races more than that.

The Olympics or the 4 x 100 meter category relay race and the 4 x 400 meter category were first held in 1992. Held in Stockholm, Sweden. However, at that time the race was only reserved for men.

The relay race for women started in 1928. Then in 1972, it was held again. The race was held for the 4 x 100 meter category and the 4 x 400 meter category.

Baton Relay

This relay baton will later be given in turn from one runner to the next runner in a group. This stick will later be carried until it reaches the finish line. The size of this relay running stick also has its own provisions.

Like the size that should fit and fit the grip of runners in general. Then, what are the other provisions of the relay baton? Here is the explanation:

1.       Relay running sticks have a length of around 29 cm to 30 cm
2.       The relay running stick has a diameter of 3.81 cm for adult size. As for children, the diameter is around 2.54 cm.
3.       The maximum weight of this stick is 50 grams.
4.       Relay running sticks are generally made of several materials. Such as fine pipes, metal, wood, and other materials that have a hole in the middle.
5.       Relay batons must be colored. The purpose is to be easily seen by runners from afar when carried by other runners.

Field for Relay Run

The number of strips is around 6 to 10 pieces. As for the indoor field field , the track length is around 200 meters. Consists of a total of 4 to 8 strips. The shape of the field is round like an egg.

The zone used for changeovers in the relay run is only 10 meters in front of the start line . In addition, there is also 10 meters behind the start line .

Types of Relay Races

What are the types of relay races? Here is the explanation:

1. Run a long distance relay

Long-distance relay running is currently gaining popularity. This race was also followed by many runners from various levels. Like at the amateur level, beginners to professionals.

The length of this long-distance relay race can reach tens of kilometers. This relay race generally has 5 to 36 stages or legs. Each stage or leg has a distance between members of 5 and 10 km.

2. Run a relay between countries

Relay races between countries have also been held. In 2017, the IAAF World Cross Country Championships were held. At this championship, a relay race was held from various countries.

This competition will pit teams or groups between countries. Contestants also consist of a mixture of men and women. The distance used in this race is 4 x 2 km or 2 km for each runner.

3. Medley relay

This type of relay running championship has different distances for each runner. The distance of 4 stages or legs in a long distance medley relay race consists of several distances. Namely 1200 meters, 400 meters, 800 meters and 1,600 meters.

Whereas the short distance medley relay usually consists of 4 stages or legs. Stage or leg distance varies. That is 400 meters, 200 meters, 800 meters. Other variants consist of 200 meters, 100 meters and 400 meters.

Techniques in Relay Running

Relay technique

This relay race generally starts with a squat. After starting, the runners will run away from the starting line line . However, there are other things that should be noted.

In addition to running speed, runners should also pay attention to technique in giving and receiving sticks. And pay attention to how the replacement process is.

1. Stick holding technique

In holding the baton, there is a technique that must be understood. Techniques like this are useful so that the stick does not fall easily. In this technique, the stick will be held at the end, only half of it. Half of the baton will be left to be held by the recipient of the next relay baton, in the form of another runner.

2. The technique of handing over and receiving the cane

In a race, a special area is needed to hand over and receive the baton. Sticks should be done in that specific area. the area is called wishel. The length of the wissel area is only about 20 meters.

Runners should be able to take advantage of the area. It is used for changing sticks. The change of cane should also be done as quickly and accurately as possible.

Runners who hand over the baton outside the switch will be disqualified, for breaking the rules. As for the stick handover technique, there are three types of techniques. The technique consists of downsweep, upsweep, and push pass. Here is the explanation:

a. Downsweep technique

The downsweep submission technique is a stick submission technique performed from above. This technique is performed when the recipient’s palm is facing upwards. The runner who will give the baton must hand over the baton from the side of the first runner.

The purpose is to make it easier to see and receive the stick. The cane recipient’s thumb should be positioned open. And the other fingers close together.

The cane receiver can receive the cane by turning his back. In addition, it can also be done without seeing when the baton is being handed over by the previous runner.

b. Upsweep technique

In this technique, handing the stick will be done from the bottom up. This is done when the recipient’s palm is facing downwards. When receiving the cane, it must be ensured that the thumb is wide open.

In addition, the other finger positions will be closed. It is the same as in the previous technique. The cane recipient is also welcome to turn towards the back. However, not looking back is also not a problem.

c. Push pass technique

This one technique will be done by lifting the arm towards the back. The way is with the palm to the side, then the thumb will point downwards. The runner will hand over the baton by holding it vertically. Then push it with the palm of your hand.

That is a brief review on the meaning of relay running, the history of relay running, the types of races and the techniques that runners should do. 

Meaning of Report – Report is a general term that is often used in everyday life. Not only in the work environment, but also at the school level and even RT or RW. However, do you know what the report actually means?

In the academic world, there is often overlapping information about the meaning of report and essay. The two words are sometimes used interchangeably.

In general, reports are more needed for business, scientific, technical subjects, and in the workplace. Reports concentrate on facts, while essays present arguments and reasoning.

In order to better understand the report, here is a complete explanation. Starting from the meaning of reports according to experts, functions, benefits, characteristics, structure, types, to things that need to be observed in making reports.

Meaning of Report

The word report in Indonesian is the meaning of the word report in English. However, the word report itself originally comes from two Latin words, namely the word re which means loaded or backward and the word portare which has the meaning of carrying or conveying.

The two words were combined to form the word reportare which means to convey complete information from what has been obtained before. Meanwhile, in the Indonesian Language Dictionary (KBBI), the word report has the meaning of everything that is reported or a piece of news.

The report itself is a reflection of 5W1H. Contains about what ( what ) happened, where ( where ) the event took place, when ( when ) the event happened, why ( why ) it could happen, and who ( who ) is responsible for something that has happened , as well as how it happened.

In carrying out the activities of an organization or company, reports are of course very important. Because, reports can be one of the official tools to convey information in a simple and objective manner, about all relevant problems.

In simple terms, a report is a form of information delivery that contains facts about a matter, both verbally and in writing. The information conveyed through the report can also have various contents, depending on the needs. Starting from news information, information, notifications, to accountability.

The facts presented in the report are of course based on objective conditions that have been experienced by the person in charge of making the report. Especially when he is doing a job or activity.

The Meaning of the Report According to the Experts

The definition of a report can also vary, depending on the person making it. Here are some meanings of the report according to the experts.

1. Himstreet (1998)

A report is a message delivered systematically and objectively. It is used to convey information from one division of the organization to another department or other institution, to help make decisions or solve problems.

2. JC Denyern

A report is a communication tool where the writer presents information in an organized format, which is in the form of some conclusions about the situation that has been investigated for a specific audience and with a specific purpose.

3. Dr. Prejudi Atmosudirjo

A report is any writing that contains the results of processing data and information in the form of a short, sharp, and concise document for a specific purpose and audience.

4. Alawites

A report is information made by an officer or official to be given to other officials in an administrative system.

5. Mulyadi

Reports are accounting information in the form of computer printouts. The data is stored neatly in the computer.

6. Craft (2001)

A report is a means of communication carried out by the report maker in conveying information to a person or business entity that is responsible for receiving the report made.

7. Rama & Jones

A report is a group of data that has been arranged in such a way with a good format, so that it is easy to understand.

8. Soegito

A report is an information whose content is in accordance with the facts that happened, supported by complete data, and arranged in an organized manner.

9. Beautiful

A report is a document that contains information in the form of narrative, graphics, or tables, which are arranged repeatedly and regularly. Reports can refer to a specific time period, event, event, or subject, and can be displayed or presented in verbal or text form.

10. Moekijat

A report is one type of document written by an individual or a group of people, to announce the results of research or something to the authority.

11. Oxford English Dictionary

A report is a statement of the results of an investigation of any problem that requires definite information, and is made to help others.

Report function

Well, that was some definition of the report according to the experts. Now, let’s talk about the function of a report, let’s go.

1. As a material in decision-making

In certain situations or circumstances, a manager or company leader sometimes has to make important decisions in a short time. In such conditions, authentic sources are needed to obtain clear information, so that the best decision can be taken. Well, those decision-making materials are reports.

2. As analysis material

Reports are also a very important resource. Because, every time there is a problem in the company. So their team should try to find the cause and make detailed information about the problem in the form of writing a report.

3. As a monitoring tool and evaluation material

In companies based on a large scale and involved in many different activities. It is not possible for management to supervise everyone in the company. Therefore, reports are very necessary to monitor the actions of each department and individual.

4. As a matter of accountability

Through reports, a fact can be revealed or known after there is accurate data and/or evidence that accompanies it. Of course, those facts should be written in the report, so that they can be used as material for accountability.

5. As a tool to convey information

Although the meaning of report is quite diverse, basically the report contains a topic that is explained, both in written and oral form. Reports can cover a variety of topics, but usually focus on delivering information with a clear purpose to a specific audience. A good report is accurate, objective, and complete, so that the report becomes a tool to convey information.

Report Benefits

Earlier we discussed about the function of the report. Well, here are the benefits of having a report.

1. The report can guide improvements in planning further activities.
2. Assist in policy setting quickly.
3. Reports are all sources of information.
4. Helps to know the process and progress of improving an activity.
5. Assist in recording documentation.
6. Help solve problems.

Report Features

Next, let’s get to know the characteristics of a report. Here are six features of the report.

1. Brief

In writing a report, we only need to present the main points. However, of course we write all of that in brief and must be related to what we are going to report, so that the recipient of the report will later be able to easily find out what the actual problem is from the report that we have made.

2. A report should be logical

A report will be considered logical when the information presented can be traced with reasonable reasons.

3. The report should also be complete

As people who are in charge of making reports, we must also include information as complete as possible in certain points related to our reporting.

If it is incomplete, then it is not a report anymore. Our report can also be more perfect when equipped with sources of results or bibliography.

4. Reports are written systematically

A report will be considered systematic when the written information is arranged in interrelated units and sequentially.

5. The report should be oriented towards objectivity

Because reports are often used to help make decisions or solve problems, then reports must be made objectively.

6. Even if there is a report that can be seen by the general public

In reality, the initial report was only prepared for a limited number of people. That is, the report is not for everyone to read, but only those who have authority in the organization and then it is decided to publish it or not.

Report Structure

Before we write a report, we must know the structure or framework of the report we will write. So that our reports can later be organized in an orderly and good manner. Here is the structure of the report that you must understand.

1. Introduction

In the introduction, we can include the meaning and purpose of writing the report, the main problem reported, as well as the systematics of the report.

2. Fill

In the content section of the report, we can write down the data and facts of the implementation of the activity. In addition, it is also about the suitability of the implementation with the planning, the problems that occur, and the discussion of the problems.

3. Closing

Then in the closing part as the end of the report. We also need to write down the conclusions from the report we made along with suggestions that will later be read by the recipient of the report.

Things to Consider in Making a Report

After knowing the structure of the report. It is good that we also need to pay attention to the following things in making a report.

1. Reports should be clear and concise.
2. The report should be complete.
3. Contains the value of objectivity.
4. Directly on the target or to the point .
5. Accompanied by some suggestions.
6. Consistent and firm in his explanation.
7. On time, that is not long from the specified reporting time.
8. Delivered to the right person or audience at the right address and purpose.

Steps to Make a Report

After understanding what a report is, its functions, benefits, features and structure. Now we learn the steps to make a report in general.

1. First, we should define the problem to be reported. We can certainly get that problem from the observations we have made during the activity. In addition, we can also catch a problem from whatever is being observed and related to the activity.
2. After finding the problem. We need to gather material for the report which is data and facts.
3. Next, we continue by classifying the data we have already obtained.
4. Then evaluate and process the data.
5. Then enter the data that has been processed into the report by creating a report structure or framework first.

Types of Reports

Friends Reader, up to this point we have studied and understood all kinds of reports. In fact, until the way it is made in general.

However, to make it easier for us in making reports. Here are the types of reports you should know, so that Reader can write a more specific report.

1. Reports based on Time

Reports based on time are divided into two specific reports, namely incidental reports and periodic reports.

1. Incidental report, which is a report made if needed. For example, an unexpected problem occurs and for its solution there must be detailed information about the problem. In order for it to be completed immediately, the incident report should also be made immediately.
2. Meanwhile, a periodic report is a report that is compiled routinely or periodically in a certain period of time. For example, such as daily reports, weekly reports, monthly reports and annual reports.

For example, employee activity reports every month. This activity report refers to a summary of activities carried out by employees during a certain period of time (one week or one month). This kind of report provides details about employee performance, the number of projects that have been successfully completed and are being dealt with, income and expenditure, the number of clients or customers, and so on.

This type of report is compiled based on summary data from the weekly report. Sometimes, the monthly report not only contains this month’s report, but also the previous month.

2. Reports based on Properties

Reports based on attributes are also divided into two types. There are normal reports and important reports.

1. A normal report is a report whose content is normal and non-confidential, so that when the report is read by others it will not cause a negative impact.
2. The opposite of the usual report. This important report is of course a report that contains important and confidential matters, so this type of report can only be known by certain people who are the purpose of the report.

3. Reports based on Submissions

Different from the previous two types of reports. This type of report is more focused on the way it is disclosed. There are three types of reports based on their presentation.

1. An oral report is a report delivered orally or directly.
2. A written report is a report delivered in writing such as memos, letters, and manuscripts.
3. A visual report is a report delivered through vision. An example of a visual report is a report through power point media in a presentation.

4. Report based on Form

Although impressed similar to the type of report based on the presentation. This type of report focuses on the form of the report itself. There are three types of reports based on their form.

1. A report in the form of a memo is a report written using a memo. Because it is in the form of a memo, the content of the report is of course very short. Usually this report is used for internal interests and is done between leaders or officials.
2. A report in the form of a letter is a report made in writing in the form of a letter. The content of this report is in the form of a letter, which is between one and four pages. An example of a report in the form of a letter, for example a report on the number of students who leave school.
3. A written report is a report delivered in the form of a manuscript, either in the form of a short or long manuscript. Examples of written reports are meeting minutes or committee activity reports.

5. Report based on Content

Aside from time, nature, delivery, and form. Because the report is a source of information from many things. Of course, there are also types of reports based on their content, which are divided into five types.

1. An informative report is a report that only contains information.
2. An analysis report is a report that contains the results of an in-depth analysis.
3. A qualification report is a report that contains the results of the selection, which is the best or as a qualification determination.
4. Accountability report is a report that contains the responsibility for the tasks of a person or a group to the superior who gave the assignment.
5. A recommendation report is a report whose content is a cursory assessment, without further discussion.

Those are the five types of reports, each of which is also divided into several more types. Well, now Reader can be more specific in making reports, right?

Edutore.com – The lithosphere is the outermost layer of the earth’s crust. It can also be said that the lithosphere is a layer of the earth’s skin because it is at the top or outermost. The lithosphere itself is classified into two types namely Continental and Oceanic Lithosphere. See a more complete explanation of the Lithosphere below, Reader:

Definition of Lithosphere

The word lithosphere comes from the Greek lithos meaning rock, and sphera meaning layer.

The lithosphere is the outermost layer of the earth’s crust and consists of rocks with an average thickness of 1200 km. The lithosphere is the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust that consists of rocks, generally this layer is formed from chemical compounds rich in SO2.

That is why the lithosphere layer is often called the silicate layer. According to Klarke and Washington, rocks or lithosphere on the surface of the earth is almost 75% composed of silicon oxide and aluminum oxide. The lithosphere is the outermost layer of the earth’s crust made up of rocks and minerals. The rocks that make up the lithosphere are igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. The parent of all these rocks is magma. The earth’s crust is divided into two types, namely the sial layer at the top and the sima layer at the bottom.

The sial layer is the upper crust which consists of two types of crust, namely oceanic crust and continental crust. The main constituents of the lithosphere are rocks consisting of a mixture of similar or dissimilar minerals that are loosely or densely bound together. The parent rock that forms the lithosphere is magma, which is molten molten rock that has a very high temperature and is found under the earth’s crust. Magma will undergo several change processes until it becomes igneous rock, sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock.

The lithosphere plays an important role in plant life. Soil is formed when rocks on the surface of the lithosphere undergo degradation, erosion and other physical processes into small rocks to sand. Further, this part is mixed with the input of organic components of living things which then form soil that can be used as a place for organisms to live. Soil is a source of various types of minerals for living things.

In their original form, these minerals are in the form of rocks that are layered on the surface of the earth. Through the process of erosion, minerals that are a source of food for living things are often carried by rivers to the sea and deposited on the seabed.

Learn more about the structure of the earth’s layers including the atmosphere through the Smart Encyclopedia: Our Earth book which also explains various other important information for Reader to know about our earth.

Functions of the Lithosphere

The lithosphere is a part of the earth that directly affects life and has a very large benefit for life on earth. The upper lithosphere is where humans, animals and plants live. Humans perform activities on the lithosphere. Furthermore, the lower lithosphere contains mineral materials that are very beneficial for humans. Minerals or minerals that come from the lower lithosphere include petroleum and gas, gold, coal, iron, nickel and tin.

Discussions about atmospheric layers, and much more Reader can find in the book Super Fun Encyclopedia: Hello, Earth! Hemma’s work.

As explained above, the lithosphere is the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust. Therefore, the lithosphere is a layer that can be inhabited by humans. In the lithosphere, humans live and grow. Carrying out all activities in his life. The lithosphere also provides the materials needed by humans to meet their needs. In this layer, humans can build shelters, grow crops, make agricultural land, plantations and others.

• Serves as a place for living things to live their lives
• The rocks that make up the lithosphere can be used in various fields (most industrial fields)
• The compiler can also be used as a source of energy as well as the fulfillment of other human needs.
• The minerals that make up the lithosphere can be used for many things such as building materials, household appliances, the electronics industry, jewelry, and so on.

Layer Structure of the Earth’s Skin (Lithosphere)

Rocks are not only hard things in the form of stones in everyday life, but also in the form of clay, volcanic ash, sand, gravel and so on. The thickness of the earth’s crust is uneven, the crust of the earth on the continent or land is thicker than under the ocean. The earth is made up of several layers, namely:

• The barosphere is the core layer of the earth which is a solid material made up of the nife layer (niccolum = nickel and ferrum = iron) of the barispheric radius ± 3,470 km.
• The intermediate layer is the layer found above the 1700 km thick nife. This layer is also called asthenosphere mautle/mautel, is a liquid material with high temperature and glowing. Its specific weight is 5 gr/cm3. The lithosphere is the outermost layer located above the intermediate layer with a thickness of 1200 km and an average density of 2.8 grams/cm3.

Parts of the Lithospheric Layer This layer also consists of two parts namely the Sial layer and the Sima layer:

• The Sial layer is the layer of the Earth’s skin that is composed of silicon and aluminum metals, the compounds in the form of SiO2 and Al2O3. In this sial (silicon and aluminum) layer, among others, there are sedimentary rocks, granite, andesite, types of metamorphic rocks, and other rocks found on continental land.
• Sima layer The Sima layer (silicon magnesium) is the layer of the Earth’s skin that is composed of silicon and magnesium metals in the form of SiO2 and MgO compounds. This layer has a greater specific gravity than the sial layer because it contains iron and magnesium, which are ferro magnesium minerals and basalt rocks. The rocks that make up the Earth’s crust always undergo a cycle or cycle, that is, rocks undergo a change in form from magma, igneous rock, sedimentary rock, metamorphic rock, and return to magma again.

Learn about the layers of the earth through story books with interesting science content that can be accessed through smartphones. Smart Science Book Series: Earth’s Layers and Fossils – Alpha & Mega Travel to Earth you can only get at Sinaumedia!

Materials that make up the Lithosphere

The lithosphere is composed of three main types of material with the basic material of its formation being Magma with various different processes. Here are the rock materials that make up the lithosphere,

Igneous Rock

Igneous rocks are rocks formed from incandescent magma that solidified, with about 80% of the rock material that makes up the earth’s crust being igneous. Based on where the frozen magma was formed. Igneous rocks are divided into three types:

• Igneous Rocks – Igneous rocks occur from the slow freezing of magma while still deep in the earth’s crust. Examples of deep igneous rocks are granite, diotite, and gabbro.
• Gang/Korok Igneous Rocks – Korok igneous rocks occur from magma that freezes in the passageway between the magma chamber and the earth’s surface. Magma that permeates between the layers of the lithosphere undergoes a freezing process that takes place faster, so that the mineral crystals that are formed are not all large. A mixture of mineral crystals of unequal size is characteristic of igneous rocks.
• External Igneous Rock – External igneous rock occurs from the magma that comes out of the magma furnace and freezes on the surface of the earth (such as magma from a volcanic eruption). Examples of external igneous rocks are: basalt, diorite, andesite, obsidian, scoria, pumice.

Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary rocks are mineral rocks that have formed on the surface of the earth that have weathered. The parts that come off from the results of weathering are detached and transported by water flow, wind, or by glaciers which are then deposited or sedimented and the process of diagenesis occurs which causes the sediment to harden and become a sediment aid. Sedimentary rocks based on their formation process consist of: Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Chemical Sedimentary Rocks.

Organic Sedimentary Rocks

Based on the energy that transports it, Sedimentary Rock consists of:

• Aeris or Aeolis Sedimentary Rock
• Glacial Sedimentary Rocks
• Aquatic Sedimentary Rocks
• Marine Sedimentary Rocks
• Malihan Rock (Metamorph)
• Malihan rocks are formed due to an increase in temperature or an increase in high pressure and occur simultaneously in sedimentary rocks.

Malihan Rock (Metamorph)

Malihan rocks are formed due to an increase in temperature or an increase in high pressure and occur simultaneously in sedimentary rocks. Malian rocks consist of three types namely:

• Malihan Kontak rocks are metamorphic rocks that are formed sequentially due to the increase in temperature caused by the proximity of rocks to active magma. Because of that, usually the region of contact rock formation is not too wide. For example, marble rocks in Tulung Agung and bricks in Bukit BArisan.
• Malihan Dynamo Rock is a metamorphic rock formed due to high pressure accompanied by heat and impact. This pressure can come from other layers that are on top of the rock. An example is slate.
• Pneumatalitic contact metamorphic rocks (thermal-pneumatalitics) Pneumatalitic contact metamorphic rocks are a type of metamorphic rock that is formed due to the presence of other substances that enter the rock during the process of metamorphosis (change). In fact, the process is the same as contact rock or dynamo rock. It’s just that during that process there are other substances that enter the rocks. So that it produces different new rocks. An example of quartz that enters Borium gas will form a Topaz stone.

Meaning of LAN – The era that continues to develop rapidly brings forth new things, namely modern technology that is increasingly sophisticated, especially technology in the field of communications. The rapid development of modern technology can be seen from the presence of various innovations in information and communication technology. One of the innovations in information and communication technology is the internet.

The presence of the internet today makes it possible for a person to communicate with everyone in the world. In fact, the communication process can be done in real-time only by using the internet network. This internet network has several terms, among which are LAN, MAN, WAN.

Before going into the discussion about internet networks. We are first on the computer network. What is meant by a computer network? So, a computer network is a group of computer devices that are interconnected with each other so that they can exchange data and communicate with each other. There are various types of computer networks. LAN is one of the types of computer networks that are surveyed based on their geographical reach. Besides LAN, there are other computer networks such as MAN and WAN.

This article will discuss the meaning of LAN, how to build a LAN network, LAN characteristics, the purpose and function of LAN, LAN network components, and the advantages and disadvantages of LAN. Let’s listen, Reader!

What is the meaning of LAN?

LAN stands for Local Area Network (LAN) which is a computer network that covers only the local area. This means that this network can only be used by users in the LAN area. LAN connects devices to the internet network through a simple network device.

This LAN network usually has cables such as UTP, Hub, Switch, or Router. An example of this network is the network of computers in schools, companies, or internet cafes (cafes). This network has a limited area that is usually a LAN network. So, the LAN network has a small (local) scale.

LAN networks are usually used to share resources in a building. A LAN can stand alone, without being connected by an external network or the internet. But, if a LAN is connected to several other LANs, then a new network will be formed, which is called Metropolitan Area Network ( MAN ) .

So it can be understood that LAN is a computer network where the coverage of the network area is very small and limited. A network is also defined as a computer communication system whose distance is limited to no more than a few kilometers. LAN networks use high-speed connections between 2 to 100 Mbps.

How to Build a LAN Network?

How to build a LAN network? LAN networks can be built using wired (cable), wireless (without cable) or both methods. For a wired LAN type built using Ethernet and to build a wireless LAN type using a Wifi signal. LAN is mostly used in homes that use a router to create a network and manage connected devices.

The router here is useful as a connection center and allows devices such as mobile phones, computers, laptops, and tablets to connect to each other. The router is usually connected with a cable or modem that has internet access on the connected devices.

The computer device can also be used as a LAN center. The computer device that will be used as the LAN center acts as a server as well as providing access to share files or programs on connected devices. This has often been applied to networks in offices and institutions.

What are the characteristics of LAN?

LAN as a network that covers the local area has several characteristics that are easy for us to identify. This characteristic will distinguish the LAN network from other networks such as MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area Network). Here are some of the characteristics of LAN, namely:

1. The LAN network does not use telecommunication networks from additional operators.
2. LAN networks are usually used for private purposes.
3. LAN network administration is done through local administration.
4. In a LAN network, there is generally one computer that functions as a server that is useful for organizing the system to run normally
5. LAN networks are on a narrower geographical scope (office areas, campuses, schools, and homes).
6. LAN has a higher data transfer speed due to its narrow scope
7. A LAN can function well without a telecommunication line, meaning that a LAN does not require internet access.

What is the Purpose of a LAN?

There are several purposes of a LAN network, among which are:

1. Aims to connect several computers in a region that has a small coverage.
2. Aims to enable communication between computer devices and other devices in a network.
3. Aiming to speed up the process of sharing data and programs between computers in a network.
4. Aiming to help save operational costs caused by devices in a network that can be used together (for example: printers, servers, etc.).

What is the Function of LAN?

Basically, LAN has the main function of connecting several computers in a network that will make the work process faster and easier. A LAN network has several specific functions or uses. The following are the functions of a LAN network, among them:

1. Connecting two or even more computers

A LAN network is used to connect two or more computers. Either directly or by using an intermediary media. Two computers can be connected directly by using a UTP cable connected to both computers. Meanwhile, if we want to combine more computers, we need other devices such as Switch or Hub.

2. Works to transfer files from one computer to another

When we use a LAN network, we don’t have to go back and forth to insert a flash disk from one computer to another. By using the LAN network we can easily transfer data through the sharing method on our computers.

3. There is Printer Sharing

In addition to sharing data and transferring files easily, the LAN network we use can also allow users to share printers . This will make it easier for all users and save the cost of using it.

What to do? We can start by sharing the printer driver in the Control Panel . Once shared (to all users), the printer can be used together without having to move the computer or printer . We may often see this LAN function in cafes, computer rentals, or printers . When the file is ready, we can print the file according to the choice of printer that is already available.

4. Availability of LAN Chat

Another function of the LAN network is that it can be used to send messages between computers in the LAN area. This activity can even be done without having to be connected to the internet, although later the LAN network will still be visible online . If we want to run LAN Chatting , we can use built-in Windows applications such as winchat.exe or use other LAN Chatting software .

5. As a Computer Remote

If we want to do remote activities on a computer we can use software like TeamViewer . However, the software can only work when the computer is connected to the internet.

In a LAN network, we can do remote without first being connected to the internet network. We can take advantage of the Remote Desktop Manager/Connection feature provided by Microsoft . We can also control the computer in the LAN network.

What are the Basic Components of a LAN Network?

A LAN network consists of several basic components that are arranged in such a way that they can connect several computers. There are several basic components of a LAN, including the following:

1. Workstation , is a node/host on a computer system
2. Server , is a piece of hardware that functions to serve the network and workstations connected to a computer network
3. Link , is part of the LAN network that physically connects equipment, for example workstations and servers .
4. Network Interface Card (NIC), is a specially designed electronic network that is useful for dealing with network protocols .
5. Network Software , is software that plays a role in running the LAN network in order to function as it should

What Are the Advantages of LAN?

LAN networks only have a small area coverage. With its small coverage, of course LAN has its own advantages and disadvantages. Here are the advantages of a LAN network, among others:

1. Can Share Resources

If we use a LAN network, we can easily share resources with other computers. This advantage will make us more efficient. In addition, by sharing resources , we can also save on production costs. Because we no longer need to buy devices such as scanners, printers, or other storage media for each computer. We just need to buy one, then divide it so that it can be accessed on other computers.

In addition to sharing devices, we can also share software applications with other devices. This is a very effective advantage to simplify the productivity of our time. However, sharing software applications is also not always cheaper compared to installing software one by one on a computer. Because, the product license for each software is still needed during installation.

2. Centralized Data

By using a file server, data on all computers connected to the LAN network will be stored in one place called the server. This advantage will make it easier for users to mutually access files owned by other computers. In addition, the advantage of this centralized data also helps to back up user data if an error occurs, thus causing the deletion of data on the user’s computer.

If a data is shared in a network, users who have access can see the data at the same time. However, they cannot edit the same recording at the same time.

When a recording is edited by a user, the recording will be locked so that other users cannot edit it at the same time. If the user has finished editing and saving the results, then the recording will open again. That has the purpose of avoiding confusion that could happen when several people try to edit at the same time.

The reach that only covers a small area results in the LAN not draining too much of its user fees. In addition, the cable used is not too long. Of course, this is one of the reasons why LAN saves more money.

3. Data connection between nodes will take place quickly

4. A LAN network does not require a telecommunications operator to be able to create a network

What Are the Disadvantages of LAN Networks?

Whenever there is an advantage, there must be a disadvantage. As for the shortcomings of the LAN network, namely:

1. Vulnerable Peace

In a computer network, security is a very vital thing that must be observed, as well as in a LAN network. Here, network administrators in particular play an important role in preventing unauthorized users from accessing data on the network.

The other factor that affects the security of the LAN network is the user himself. This is because it does not cover the possibility that the user we have is unable to keep the password secret , or it may be that the password he has is too easy for other users to guess, so that this causes unauthorized users to easily break into the network through the previous user. .

2. There is a problem on the central server

The emergence of a problem on the central server can have fatal consequences on the LAN network. This can affect the entire computer network, even causing the computer to not be able to communicate with other computers properly.

Virus infection is one example of a problem that can occur on the central server. This virus infection can occur on one computer and spread to all computers through the central server, this is because all the data on the centralized user is on the server.

3. Installation is quite expensive

Installation on a LAN network can be expensive depending on the needs and conditions in the field. The type of topology that we will use also affects the cost that will be incurred. For a wired LAN network (cable), we must first make a cable strip by drilling a hole in the wall or putting it under the floor, then connect the cable.

On a wireless LAN network, we don’t need to use cables. However, the coverage area of ​​the wireless is limited. Thus, we need a device to amplify the signal, which of course will increase the cost of production.

4. The connection area is limited

Of course this shortcoming is because the LAN network only covers the local area.

Book Recommendations About LAN

There are several books or reading references that Reader can read about LAN, namely:

1. Easy Steps to Build a Computer Network (2021) by Zaenal Arifin

This book is suitable to read for Reader, this book discusses how easy steps to build a computer network. Presented in simple and easy-to-understand language, this book is suitable as an introduction and learning reference for beginners who want to start trying to build a computer network.

2. Dictionary ++ Computer Network (2021) by Budi Sutedjo

This book written by Budi Sutedjo can be read by Reader if you want to know the basics about computer networks. This book is a complete dictionary of computer networks, for Reader who are still confused by terms and methods in the world of computer networks, this book will be very helpful.

3. Complete Guide to Building Your Own Computer Network System (2021) by Madcoms

After reading this book written by Madcoms, the reader is expected to be able to recognize network hardware and perform configuration to build a computer network. This book published in 2021 is complete with many pictures about network hardware and illustrations of the configuration process to help readers understand the language in this book.

Such is the article about the meaning of the internet and its complete discussion. Hope it’s useful, Reader!

Meaning of Curriculum – In the world of education, curriculum is very important. Without the right curriculum, the students will not get the appropriate learning target. Along with the development of the Curriculum in the world of education, it continues to undergo changes. Everything is adapted to the needs of students in their respective eras.

With these adaptations, it is hoped that each student will be able to adapt well in society in the future. For those of you who are struggling in the world of education, you must understand what the Curriculum is and its intricacies. The following will explain the meaning of Curriculum and other important things you need to know.

Meaning of Curriculum According to Experts

So, Curriculum can be interpreted as a distance that a runner must cover in order to get a medal or other awards. Later, the term Curriculum was adapted in the world of education. So the meaning of Curriculum in the world of education then becomes a group of subjects that must be completed and studied by students in order to obtain a degree or award.

As for the meaning of this Curriculum is also conveyed in the Law and by education experts, the following is the meaning according to them:

1. According to Prof. Dr. S. Nasution

Prof. Dr. S. Nasution in his book titled Curriculum and Teaching states that curriculum is a series of plans to launch the teaching and learning process. As for the plan that was compiled, it is under the responsibility of the educational institution and especially the teachers there.

2. Dr. Nana Sudjana

In the book titled Construction and Development of Curriculum in Schools by Dr. Nana Sudjana mentioned, the meaning of curriculum is a set of intentions and hopes expressed in the form of educational programs which are then implemented and implemented by teachers in the school concerned.

3. Harold B. Alberty

Harold stated that the curriculum is all activities given to students under the responsibility of the school. This curriculum is not only limited to everything in the classroom, but also all activities outside of school.

4. Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis

According to the three figures, the curriculum is all the efforts made and carried out by the school to stimulate students to learn, both in the classroom, on the school grounds, and when outside the school.

Meanwhile, in the Law on the National Education System No. 20 of 2003, article 1 item 19, it is mentioned that the curriculum is a set of arrangements and plans regarding the purpose, content, and subject matter as well as the methods used as guidelines for learning activities in order to achieve educational goals.

Curriculum is very important for every school to have as a guideline for teachers. Especially for formal schools, where the curriculum will be a guide and provide direction in teaching. In accordance with the meaning of curriculum, which is something that is planned, then in the world of education all student activities can be arranged in such a way. So that the purpose of education can be achieved.

In fact, it can be said that if there is no curriculum, then learning in school cannot go well. Because everything has been written in a curriculum. Of course with various variations and adaptations. So it is not surprising if an expert named Beauchamp (1998) states that the curriculum is the heart of education.

Functions of the Curriculum

1. Functions For Maintainers

The function in the context of the curriculum as one part of the education management system in order to realize the purpose of education is as follows:

a. Integration Functions

This function means that the curriculum can be a tool that will shape the personalities of learners who are whole and have integrity in society through the world of education.

b. Preparation function

This function means that the curriculum is able to provide capital or preparation for students to prepare themselves to enter the next level, including being ready to live in society when they do not want to continue to a higher level of education.

c. Customization Functions

The third is the adaptation function, where the curriculum can adapt to the various changes that occur in the community and tend to be dynamic.

d. Differentiation function

Fourth, there is the function of the curriculum as differentiation, meaning that the curriculum becomes an educational tool that pays attention to every service to its students. Because every student has differences from each other.

e. Diagnostic Functions

The fifth is a diagnostic function, which states that the curriculum functions to understand and direct the potential possessed by each student so that they can continue to explore and hone that potential, including improving the weaknesses possessed.

f. Selection Function

Finally, there is the function of selection, which states that the curriculum provides facilities to students by giving them the opportunity to choose a learning program according to the interests and talents of each child.

In addition to the functions above, the curriculum can also be seen from its function for each involved and related party.

2. Functions for Involved/Related Parties

a. For the Principal

The curriculum has a function for the school principal as a manager and leader in the implementation of education in the school. School principals have the duty to manage education in their respective places, namely by coordinating and supervising each learning. Whether the curriculum is applied according to the provisions or not.

b. For Subject Teachers

For every mapel teacher, the curriculum has a function as a guideline in implementing learning inside and outside the classroom. Because each learning becomes the duty and responsibility of each subject teacher.

c. For Students

Then the third, for students, who become the target of the curriculum. In the education process, students are the center of attention of every learning. Therefore, the curriculum serves as a reference for students regarding what educational programs should be studied and understood, as well as what learning targets they should achieve at each level.

d. For parents or the community

Although not directly involved in learning, parents have an important role in the success of students. In this case they will receive the results of the learning process that has been done at school. So the student’s access to every learning that will be reported to parents is also inseparable from the existence of the curriculum.

Curriculum development in Indonesia

Indonesia first used a curriculum with the name Rentjana Pelajaran in 1947. Where the emphasis in learning is on the formation of the character of Indonesian society to become sovereign and independent human beings. Then in 1952, the curriculum was refined again with the title Rentjana Pelajaran Teruai 1952. In this period there was special attention on each teacher to teach only one subject to students.

Furthermore, in 1964 the curriculum in Indonesia was refined again. This time there is an addition in the form of an emphasis on the Pancawardhana program (ie the development of morals, intelligence, emotions, skills, and the body).

Curriculum changes in the following year occurred in 1968. Where emphasis was placed on the formation of true Pancasila human beings that should be maximized in every educational institution. The next change was made in 1975. At the time of this change, what was known as the lesson unit was the lesson plan for each unit of discussion.

After those changes in the following years, the curriculum also experienced many changes. Of course, the scandal happened because of turmoil and various things in the middle of the community. Further curriculum reforms were carried out in 1984, 1994, 1999, 2004, 2006, and the last one was in 2013. The 2013 curriculum, better known as K13, focused on three aspects of change, namely knowledge, skills, and behavior.

Basically, there were many changes that happened during that period. Not only in the evaluation process, but the content of the curriculum is also continuously updated. Even so, every change certainly has the hope that the world of education in Indonesia can become more advanced. The students who are the main focus of the curriculum can be someone who is much more valuable.

Components in the Curriculum

1. Purpose of the Curriculum

First is the purpose of the curriculum. Everything that is done with a plan, of course must have a purpose, as well as the curriculum. Without a clear purpose, of course what has been formulated will have no meaning. Education in Indonesia certainly also has a purpose, so from that, the formation of the curriculum is aimed at making education accessible.

Not only in Indonesia, in other countries the curriculum has a purpose. Although each country has different goals than the others. All of that is adapted to the country’s philosophy, human and natural resources, as well as the political and social conditions of the community. The purpose of education in Indonesia according to the level is:

• The purpose of basic education is to pay attention to aspects of intelligence, knowledge, personality, noble character, and skills as the main foundation. With that foundation, it is hoped that students will be able to live more independently, as well as have the readiness to enter the next level of education.
• The purpose of secondary education is to improve intelligence, knowledge, personality, noble character, and also skills in order to be a supply for the challenging life of teenagers.
• The purpose of secondary vocational education, which aims to improve intelligence, knowledge, personality, noble character, and skills that are much better than before. That way, students are ready to live independently in the community and are able to continue their education to the next level.
• Materials in the Curriculum

The second component is matter. So, in the curriculum will be included materials in the form of teaching materials for learning activities inside and outside the classroom in order to achieve the learning objectives. As for the material in the curriculum, it should not be made indiscriminately. The material included should be appropriate to the development of each student and meaningful to them, then consist of scientific knowledge that can be tested for truth, be a reflection of national reality, and be able to support the achievement of educational goals.

2. Learning Strategies

Then there is curriculum component number three, namely learning strategies. To achieve an educational goal, strategy becomes very important. Learning strategies can be in the form of methods and equipment used to deliver lessons to students. The strategies applied by each country are certainly not the same as each other. All of that depends on several factors, especially natural and human resources. The richer the natural resources and the better the quality of human resources in a country, the strategies applied can be more maximal and varied.

3. Curriculum Organization

In this regard, each member has their own view of the curriculum that needs to be applied. Therefore, the diversity that exists makes provision for better organizing the curriculum.

4. Evaluation

The last curriculum component is evaluation. This evaluation is intended to check whether the curriculum that has been created and implemented runs smoothly, so that it is effective and able to achieve the goals of education.

Curriculum concept

1. Curriculum as a substance

Curriculum becomes a learning plan for students in school. In addition, it also lists the goals to be achieved from learning both inside and outside the classroom. Therefore, the curriculum becomes a document that includes substance whose content is the formulation of objectives, teaching materials, teaching and learning activities and programs, timetables, and student learning evaluations.

2. Curriculum as a system

The second concept of the curriculum states the curriculum as part of the education system. In accordance with its content, the curriculum is intended to support the achievement of educational goals. Therefore, the system in the curriculum consists of the personnel structure and also the work procedures regarding the procedures for compiling the curriculum, implementing, evaluating and perfecting it. From the results of this system, it is hoped that a curriculum that matches the goals to be achieved can be achieved. The function of this system is to keep the existing curriculum dynamic.

3. Curriculum as a field of study

The last concept is the curriculum as a field of study. Where as a study, it means that the curriculum also aims to develop knowledge about the curriculum itself and its system.

That is the meaning of curriculum and various other things about curriculum in the world of education. The importance of the curriculum makes every teacher have to understand its various aspects. So that making it will have a positive effect on students at school. If you want to understand more about the curriculum, 

Understanding Receipts – Understanding Receipts is a familiar term to our ears. In general, a receipt is a document that shows proof of a payment or receipt of money that has been made.

However, the term receipt is a non-standard term, but is often used by the community. According to the Indonesian Dictionary (KBBI), the correct standard word is receipt. Definition Receipt itself is usually interpreted as proof of receipt of money.

Definition of Receipts

Definition Receipt is a document that has a function as proof of payment or receipt of funds. The recipient issues and signs the document, which is then handed over to the payer or lender.

There are receipts to simplify the bookkeeping process for recording incoming and outgoing cash flows. Receipts generally include company name information, receipt number, name of money giver, nominal amount (numbers and letters), explanation of purpose of payment, location and date of payment or receipt of money, as well as signature and name of recipient.

To ensure that the receipt has legal force in court in the event of a dispute or other problem, Reader can provide an attachment in the form of a seal with both parties signing the proof of acceptance.

What Are the Features of Receipts?

1. The evidence sheet has been divided into two parts, the right and left subsections. Both parties obtain part of this proof of payment, the right sub (smaller print) is allocated for the seller as proof of payment, and the left sub is for the buyer.
2. Receipts are divided into two parts, with the top or original for the payer and the bottom or file for the party receiving the money.
3. Both parties include complete information about the product, the amount of money to be paid, the address and date of purchase, and the name and signature of the seller as valid proof that both parties have completed the payment transaction.

Types of Receipts Based on Usage

Receipts have a variety of types to suit their use. This article discusses five types of receipts, among others:

1. Receipt Proof of Payment

In principle, receipts function as proof of payment. The use of this type of receipt is common during buying and selling activities. Proof of payment can be in the form of installments or installment payments. This receipt generally also explains the amount of money for payment and information from the payer.

2. Product Transaction Receipt

Product transaction receipts provide information about items purchased by customers. This sign includes various information such as the complete serial number of the item, the type of item, the customer’s address, and the price of the item.

3. Money Transfer Receipt

This type of receipt is generally used in the banking industry. On proof of money transfer payment, there is a feature where the recipient’s account number is clearly listed on the receipt from the receipt.

4. Cash receipt

This type of receipt explains which deposits and withdrawals will be sent as financial proof in the next review. Workplaces generally also use this type of receipt.

5. Money handover receipt

Money handover receipts are the most common and most commonly used types of receipts. If using the type of money handover receipt, Reader must be able to state the amount of money sent to a person, institution, or company.

Receipt Format

In the previous point I have mentioned several times about the problem of the receipt format. Yes, before writing or making a receipt, it is good for Reader to understand what the format of a good receipt is.

There are several important elements that must be present in the format of creating a sample receipt, namely:

1. Receipt Number/Receipt

In general, the writing of alphabetic letters and numbers is adapted to the wishes of the seller as a differentiator between one receipt and another.

2. Place and Date of Receipt Production

The place and date of issuance of the receipt should be clearly stated because it can be used as proof of the transaction and the receipt will be useful for recording cash flow. If an inspection is needed at a later date, the information will be clearly readable. This can minimize the possibility of misunderstandings from both sides.

3. Name

A clear name is one of the signs to whom the proof of payment is allocated. Clearly list the name of the lender and the recipient.

4. Products

Information about the type of product, quantity, price, etc. is generally included in the receipt, especially with the type of payment receipt.

5. Nominal Payment

The nominal amount of money paid needs to be clearly written. Usually not only written in the form of numbers, but also letters. In other words, it is written in the form of the symbol of the number of rupiah or whatever currency is used, then it is written again in the form of a sentence.

6. Purpose of Payment

Purpose of payment means what the money is paid for. This should be clearly written. For example, the purchase of electronic goods at stores and other goods. So that if one day there is a complaint about the item sold, the buyer can more easily make a product warranty claim.

7. Signature

The party who signed the receipt can be referred to as the party responsible for the transaction. Therefore, don’t just sign a blank receipt. There have been many examples of cases that have occurred due to the misuse of these receipts by certain parties.

If the receipt will later be stamped, make sure the signature of the recipient of the money on the stamp together with the receipt paper. So that the writing between the receipt and the seal are interconnected.

8. Seal

Seals that are often used have a value of Rp 10,000. However, not all receipts use a seal. Usually just for transactions that have a large value and have a correlation with the law. For example, the purchase of a motor vehicle or land.

The use of seals must be in accordance with the provisions of the Indonesian Minister of Finance, namely:

1. Transactions with a nominal value below IDR 250 thousand do not require a stamp
2. Transactions with a nominal value of Rp 250 thousand to Rp 1 million must use a Rp 10 thousand stamp
3. Transactions with a nominal value above Rp 1 million must wear a Rp 10 thousand stamp.

9. Enterprise Stamp

The stamp must be present in the proof of transaction including the receipt. The stamp can indicate whether the payment is in installments or installments. The stamp indicates that the transaction was carried out under the authority of the company. This is to ensure that the transaction is valid.

How to Make a Receipt

A receipt is a piece of paper that has as a receipt proof of payment. Receipts must be owned by all business people, both individuals and companies, so that they can be used as a record for themselves and others.

The way to write a receipt also has Reader conditions , it cannot be done casually. Because receipts play a very crucial role in making transactions, especially if the amount of money is relatively large. If there is a writing error in the amount of payment or the name of the recipient, then the receipt can be declared invalid.

So, what is the correct way to write a receipt? See the following explanation.

1. Enter the Receipt Number

In general, receipts have a number column at the top. Well, this receipt number has a function to make it easier for Reader to check receipts, so that it will be easier for Reader to organize receipts from the first number to the last.

2. Write the Name of the Recipient and Depositor

The name of the depositor and recipient must also be mentioned in the receipt. Ideally, the name should be written in full and not just a nickname.

3. Enter the Date of the Transaction

Do not forget to enter the date when the transaction was made. This is done so that the depositor and receiver both know about the time the transaction takes place.

4. Enter Amount of Money

The next step is to enter the amount of money made during the transaction into the receipt. This is so that the transaction becomes more transparent because the depositor and recipient can know the size of the transaction.

As a reminder, writing the amount of money on the receipt is divided into two, namely writing with letters and numbers. Make sure when writing the amount of money there are no mistakes, especially in entering numbers.

5. Write a Payment Description

In the receipt there is generally a column “For payment”, in that column Reader must write a clear and detailed description of the payment. So the recipient of the receipt can understand what the purpose of this transaction is.

6. Add a Signature

So that the receipt can be said to be valid, the signature of both the depositor and the recipient is also included in the receipt. If necessary, also include the company’s stamp used as an official proof of payment receipt.

How to Use Receipts

After understanding the definition, how to make, to examples of receipts, it is necessary to know how to use them because these receipts are very commonly used by the community. In addition, how to use it also needs to be understood so that the receipt is not misused.

Prepare the receipt blank and carbon paper as a copy when Reader writes the contents of the receipt.

Fill in using an appropriate writing instrument, such as a pen. Do not use pencils or markers. Writing is also done so that it is neither too big nor too small. It is important to write the receipt in legible writing.

Understand the Difference between Receipts and Receipts, Invoices, and Notes

So that it is easier to distinguish between receipts, invoices , and notes, it would be better for Reader to briefly understand the meaning of each.

1. Receipt

As previously commented, that a receipt is a document that has a function as proof of receipt or payment of funds.

The parties involved, that is between the recipient and the payment of funds, include complete information about the product, amount of money, address and date of purchase, along with the seller’s name and signature as valid proof that both parties have completed the payment transaction.

2. Invoices and notes

An invoice is one type of transaction document that can be used to track sales transactions. Generally, the seller makes this invoice consisting of three copies. On the first sheet sent to the buyer, the seller keeps the second sheet for the purpose of billing, and the third sheet to be kept in the invoice book. Reader can monitor the sales process by using automatic software .

While a note is conceptually similar to an invoice, both are created by the seller. Just enough consisting of two copies. Where the buyer will receive the first sheet. The use of invoices and notes is also only used as proof of purchase that does not require a stamp.

Example of Daily Receipt Usage

There are many activities that occur using receipts. The most important thing is to buy and sell goods. The most absolute conditions are the number, name of both parties, denomination, purpose of payment, transaction date and signature.

The following is an example of the correct use of receipts based on the purpose of the transaction, among others:

1. Individual purchase and sale receipts of land and property

There is no letterhead, just numbers, names and signatures. Equipped with a Rp 10,000 stamp which will later be used as a condition for the certificate making process.

2. Receipts from large-scale shops such as motor or car dealers

Wearing a cap showing the logo from the company. The number has been automatically registered from the system, filled with the name of the payer, nominal, recipient, and company stamp.

3. Receipt for the payment of fees in installments

For example, school tuition, there is already a column for the number of installments. Using a letterhead from the school, confirmation by using the signature of an authorized official, as well as a stamp from the school.

Chromosome is a structure found in cells that stores genetic information. Chromosomes consist of DNA that functions as “instructions” to produce the proteins needed by the cell. Each organism has a specific number of chromosomes found in each cell.

For example, humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell, consisting of 23 pairs. Genetic information contained in chromosomes can provide instructions for determining individual characteristics, such as hair color, height, and susceptibility to certain diseases.

Chromosomes have a quite unique structure that makes DNA wrap around proteins to form a coil. The structure is also called histone. Without the twist, the DNA molecule would be too long to enter the cell. There are some other facts about chromosomes and the structure of chromosomes. Read more about the meaning of chromosomes in the following article.

Meaning of Chromosomes

Chromosome comes from two Greek words, namely chroma which means color and soma which means body. The scientists gave this name because this molecule is a cell or body structure that appears to have certain colors when viewed under a microscope.

Chromosomal molecules were first observed in the late 1800s, but the nature and function of the cellular structure of chromosomes at that time was still unclear. Then, in the early 1900s, Thomas Hunt Morgan re-examined parts of chromosomes and found the relationship between chromosomes and the inherent characteristics of living beings.

So, in general it can be concluded that chromosomes are groups of DNA that are tightly bound together and are located in the nucleus (cell nucleus) of almost every cell in the body. This group of DNA is a molecule that has a shape similar to a thread that carries hereditary information (descendants) such as body height, skin color, to eye color.

Chromosome molecules are made of proteins and a DNA molecule that contains the genetic instructions of an organism passed down from parent to child. In humans, animals, and plants, most chromosome molecules are arranged in pairs in the cell nucleus.

Chromosome can also be interpreted as a structure in a cell that contains long DNA that contains part or all of the genetic information of an organism. Most chromosomes in eukaryotes have packaging proteins called histones that, along with chaperone proteins, bind and compact DNA molecules to maintain their integrity.

This chromosome has a quite complex three-dimensional structure and has an important role in the regulation of transcription. Chromosomes are usually only visible under a light microscope during metaphase of cell division (when all the chromosomes are lined up in the middle of the cell in a condensed or condensed form).

Before that happens, each chromosome is duplicated (S phase) and the two copies are joined by the centromere to form an X-shaped structure (if the centromere is located at the equator) or a two-armed structure (if the centromere is located at the edge). These joined copies are now called sister chromatids. During metaphase, X-shaped structures called metaphase chromosomes are very compact, so they are easy to distinguish and study. In animal cells, chromosomes reach their highest level of compaction during anaphase during the process of chromosome separation.

Chromosomal recombination that occurs during meiosis and sexual reproduction plays an important role in increasing genetic diversity. If there is an incorrect manipulation of chromosomes, through a process known as chromosome instability and translocation, cells can experience problems in the mitosis process.

Normally, this will trigger the cell to initiate apoptosis which causes its own death, but sometimes mutations in the cell can inhibit this process and cause the development of cancer. There are some who use the term chromosome in a broader sense, that is to refer to the individual parts of chromatin in a cell, both visible and invisible under a light microscope.

There are also people who use the concept of chromosome in a narrower sense, that is to refer to the individual parts of the chromatin during cell division, which are visible under the light microscope due to the high degree of condensation.

Chromosomal Structure

Chromosomes consist of 44 or 22 pairs of body chromosomes (autosomes) and a pair of sex chromosomes (gonosomes), namely XX in women and XY in men. In haploid cells such as egg cells or sperm cells, there are 23 chromosomes consisting of 22 autosomes and one gonosome.

Egg cells have approximately 22 autosomes and 1 X, while sperm cells have 22 autosomes and 1 X or 1 Y. The function of chromosomes is to store genetic information that will be passed down from parent to child and form traits and characteristics. special individual.

Chromosomes also play an important role in the process of cell division and determine the sex of an individual. The structure of the chromosomes among them are:

1. Centromere

The centromere is the structural part of the chromosome located in the middle, which connects sister chromatids. Centromeres help divide sister chromatids correctly during cell division.

The centromere consists of two parts, namely the near centromere and the far centromere. Proximal centromeres are located closer to the ends of sister chromatids, while distant centromeres are located farther from the ends of sister chromatids.

The two parts of the centromere are connected by a structure called a kinetochore. During cell division, the kinetochores will elongate and help pull sister chromatids in opposite directions so that correct division occurs. If there is a problem with the centromere, for example the centromere is too long or too short, then cell division will not occur correctly and can cause problems for the cell.

2. Chromatids 

The next part of the chromosome structure is the chromatid which consists of DNA molecules bound to proteins. Chromatids are formed during a process of cell division called DNA synthesis or DNA replication. During this process, the DNA molecule will be divided into two exactly the same parts, which will then form two chromatids.

Chromatids are located side by side with other identical chromatids called sister chromatids. Sister chromatids are bound to each other in the middle by structures called centromeres. At the time of cell division, the chromatid will be divided into two exactly the same parts and form two new cells that have exactly the same chromosomes as the original cell.

If there is a problem in the chromatid division process, for example there is an error in the division of sister chromatids or an error in DNA division, then it can cause problems in the cell.

3. Telomeres

The structural part of the chromosome that is at the end of the chromosome is called a telomere. Telomeres consist of a group of nucleotides that are repeated many times, that is about 6-20 times.

These repeating nucleotides usually consist of guanine and thiamin. Telomeres are responsible for protecting the ends of chromosomes from damage that may occur during the DNA replication process.

In addition, telomeres also play an important role in the aging process of cells and can indicate an individual’s health condition. Telomeres that are too short or too long can cause problems in cells, such as genetic mutations or abnormal cell aging.

4. Chromomer 

Chromomeres are structures from chromosomes that have a bead-like shape. Chromomeres are accumulations of chromatin material that are sometimes visible during interphase.

This part of the structure of one chromosome will be seen very clearly on polytenous chromosomes or chromosomes with DNA that has been replicated repeatedly without separation and is side by side until a chromosome cell is formed that resembles a wire.

5. Satellite 

A satellite is a structural part of a chromosome that consists of DNA molecules bound to proteins. Satellites are located near the centromere of the chromosome and form a structure called a kinetochore.

Satellites usually consist of several hundred to thousands of nucleotides repeated many times, consisting of guanine and thiamin. Satellites usually do not carry genetic information that is useful for organisms, but play an important role in the process of cell division.

Satellites help pull sister chromatids in opposite directions during cell division, so that correct division occurs. If there is a problem with the satellite, such as the satellite being too long or too short, it can cause problems in the cell division process.

Facts About Chromosomes

As explained earlier, chromosomes are groups of DNA cells that have a circular and close shape and are located in the nucleus or core of the cell and are present in almost every cell in the body of living beings, both human and animal.

Chromosomes have some unique facts such as their function, and their mode of inheritance. See the following explanation:

1. Chromosome Function

The unique structure of chromosomes keeps DNA wrapped around coil-like proteins called histones. Without the coil, the DNA molecule would be too long to enter the cell.

As an illustration, if the entire DNA molecule in a human cell was stripped of its histones, it would have a length of about 6 feet or the equivalent of 1.8 meters.

In order for an organism or living being to grow and function properly, cells must continue to divide. The purpose is to be able to replace old damaged cells with new cells. During the process of cell division, it is important that the DNA remains intact and evenly distributed among the other cells.

Chromosomes play an important role in the process of cell division. This molecule is responsible for ensuring that DNA is copied and distributed accurately in most cell divisions.

However, there is still a possibility that this group of DNA can make mistakes in the process of cell division. Changes in the amount or structure of DNA groups in new cells can cause serious problems, such as certain types of leukemia and some types of cancer.

In addition, it is also important that the egg and sperm cells contain the correct number of chromosomes with the correct structure. If not, then the offspring produced may not be able to develop well.

2. The chromosomes of every living being are not the same

In number and shape, this group of DNA varies greatly in every living being. Most bacteria have one or even two circular chromosomes. Meanwhile, humans, animals, and plants have linear chromosomes that are arranged in pairs in the cell nucleus or nucleus.

The only human cell that does not contain a pair of chromosomes is the reproductive cell or gamete. This reproductive cell can only carry one copy of each chromosome.

When two reproductive cells unite, the cells will become a single cell containing two copies of each chromosome. This cell then divides again to produce a complete adult individual with a complete set of paired chromosomes in almost every cell.

Groups of DNA with a circular shape can also be found in mitochondria. Mitochondria is where cells breathe. This part will later have the task of being able to burn glucose and produce the energy needed by the body.

In mitochondria, DNA groups have a smaller size. The group of circular DNA or chromosomes is outside the nucleus of the cell in the mitochondria and has a function as the cell’s energy generator.

3. Mode of Chromosome Inheritance

Chromosomes in humans and most other living things, one copy of each group of DNA is inherited by the female and male parents.

Because of that, every child that is born will definitely inherit part of the nature of the mother and father. However, the pattern of chromosomal inheritance is different for the small group of DNA found in the mitochondria. Mitochondrial DNA is always inherited from the female parent or egg cell and not from the male.

4. Men and Women Have Different Chromosomes

In addition to having physical differences, men and women also have different sets of DNA called sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosome cells (XX) while males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY).

If a person has an unbalanced number of sex chromosomes, this can cause serious health problems. Women who have three X chromosomes (XXX) can experience mental retardation. Men who have two X chromosomes (XXY) will experience Klinefelter syndrome characterized by small testicles, enlarged breasts (gynecomastia), low muscle mass, and larger hips like women.

Another syndrome caused by an imbalance in the number of sex chromosomes is Turner syndrome. Girls who suffer from Turner syndrome have only one X chromosome and usually have a short body, flat chest, and kidney or heart problems.

Chromosomal abnormalities

Abnormalities that occur in chromosomes can usually be grouped into two large groups, among which are numerical abnormalities and structural abnormalities.

1. Numerical Differences

Numerical abnormalities will occur if the number of chromosomes is less or even more than it should be, namely two. If a person loses one of them, then the condition is called monosomy.

Whereas if a person has more than two chromosomes, then the condition is called trisomy. One of the problems caused by chromosomal numerical abnormalities is Down syndrome.

Down syndrome is characterized by mental retardation in the sufferer, a different and distinctive facial shape and weak or poor muscle strength.

2. Structural Abnormalities

Structural abnormalities generally occur due to several things, namely deletions, duplications, translocations, inversions and rings. In general, most of the structural abnormalities occur due to problems in the egg and sperm cells.

That is the explanation of the meaning of chromosomes. Hope all the discussion above is useful for you, Reader.

Criticism of Fine Art – If we talk about fine art, surely Reader knows that it will not be far away from the exhibition and appreciation of art? Yes, it is true, through this exhibition, we will later be shown how the result of a work of art is at the same time an event for self-existence. Indeed, basically, a work of art is something created so that a beautiful feeling arises when people see or hear it, but is it just beautiful?

Moreover, the definition of “beautiful” according to people is different, especially when observing a work of art. Well, that’s what caused the emergence of a criticism of fine art. So, what is the criticism of the artwork? Will the criticism of this work of art be concerned with those art critics? Who are the art critics in our country? Well, for Reader to understand those things, let’s read the following review!

Definition of Art Criticism

Criticism is not only given to literary works, you know , but also to fine art works. Indeed, in theory, to give criticism to a work of art requires insight or understanding of the intricacies of the work of art, both verbal and written. So, the criticism of the artwork is not just given … Not many people know that the existence of this criticism also contributes to the development of a work of art. In fact, it is not uncommon to be able to influence and change someone’s style in creating a work of art.

The term “criticism” comes from the Greek language, namely ‘kriticos’ which means ‘to observe, compare, separate, and weigh’. Meanwhile, in the Encyclopedia of World Art, literary criticism is a process that leads to a qualitative ‘judgement’ on the existence of a work of art. Another definition of literary criticism is also mentioned by Sem. C. Bangun who states that art criticism is a serious study activity on the existence of a work of art. Well, from some of these definitions, it can be concluded that,

“Art criticism is the activity of responding to a work of art to show the advantages and disadvantages of a work of art.”

These disadvantages and advantages can be related to various aspects. When it comes to fine art, it usually concerns the material aspect that shows the quality of a work of art. Along with the development of the times and society’s understanding of works of art, the activities of art criticism can also fulfill various other social functions. Not infrequently, the existence of criticism of this artwork can improve the quality of understanding and appreciation of a fine art, so that it can later be used as a standard to improve the quality of the process and results of a fine art.

Another thing that is not realized is that if the criticism of this work of art is delivered by a renowned critic, it can influence the existing perception of the quality of a work of art, so that it will also affect its economic value.

Must Have Skills

1. Absorptive ability, namely the ability to observe.
2. Retentive ability, which is the ability to remember and reproduce.
3. Reasoning ability, namely the ability to analyze and consider.
4. Creative ability, ie the ability to imagine, interpret, and present ideas.

Form of Presentation of Fine Arts Criticism

Basically, a critique of this work of art can be delivered to the community in the form of:

1. Verbally, that is in the form of criticism delivered orally. For example with discussion activities or art seminars.
2. In writing, that is in the form of criticism delivered in written form. For example through mass media, magazines, social media, and others.

Types of Fine Art Criticism

Based on its function

In the book Art As Image and Idea (1967) written by the American critic Feldman, a criticism of a work of art can be divided into 4 types based on function. Well, here is the description.

1. Journalistic Criticism

The first type of art criticism is Journalistic Criticism, which is art criticism where the results of the evaluation are presented openly to the public. Usually through mass media, especially newspapers. The things that are criticized are not only works of art, but also the exhibition activities.

This type of art criticism is almost the same as popular criticism, but the assessment is more detailed and sharp. Regarding its delivery through the mass media, it will affect the public’s perception of the quality of a work of art that is being discussed. Characteristics of journalistic criticism:

• Written for newspaper readers.
• Not much confiscate the news column in the newspaper.
• Limited writing time.
• Only as news.

2. Popular Criticism

Almost the same as the criticism of journalists which are equally intended for public consumption. However, in popular criticism this is general so it focuses more on the introduction or publication of a work of art. The style of language used is easier to understand by the general public because it uses simple terms.

Not infrequently, the writing of this popular criticism is made by writers who do not have critical expertise in the world of art. Here are the characteristics of popular criticism:

• Can be written by a general writer.
• Seeing the reality that is developing in society.
• The language is easy to digest and simpler.

3. Criticism of Education (Pedagogy)

Educational criticism alias pedagogy is a critical activity that aims to increase artistic sensitivity and aesthetics as a process of learning art. It is usually used in art education institutions, so that it can directly improve the quality of artwork from its students. If applied in public school education institutions, then it is held in art subjects.

Characteristics of educational (pedagogical) criticism:

• Responsive nature.
• There is a standard form of value.
• Done in an educational institution environment.
• There is freedom of discussion.

4. Scientific Criticism (Scientific)

The next type of criticism of fine art is scientific criticism alias scientific, which is a type of criticism that is academic in nature so that it requires insight, knowledge, ability, and high sensitivity to evaluate a work of art. It is usually delivered by a critic who is already an expert in the field of art and should follow the methodology of academic criticism.

Later, the results of this scientific criticism will be used as a reference for collectors or curators of art institutions, such as those in galleries, museums, and auction houses. Characteristics of scientific criticism:

• Apply certain methodologies or rules in criticizing.
• The results are not absolute.
• Scientific in nature.
• Developed by researchers in a neutral and fair manner.

Based on the starting point

Still similar to what Feldman delivered, criticism of fine art also has types based on its point of departure.

1. Expressivist Criticism

Through the expressionistic approach applied in the criticism of this fine art work, the critic tends to evaluate and respond to the quality of the ideas and feelings that the artist wants to communicate through his artwork. The activity can be in the form of responding to the relationship between the title, theme, content, and visualization of objects featured in a work of art.

2. Formalistic Criticism

Through this formalistic approach, the study of art criticism will be aimed at artworks as a configuration of formal aspects. In short, related to the elements of its formation. For example, in a work of art painting, the target of criticism will be more likely to focus on visual elements, namely color, line, texture, and others.

In this type of criticism will also discuss the quality of techniques and materials used in fine art works.

3. Instrumentalistic Criticism

Through an instrumentalistic approach, later a work of art will be criticized based on its ability to achieve goals, moral, religious, political, and psychological. In this type of criticism, it is not too questioning the formal quality of the art work, but rather looking at the aspect of the context, both now and in the past.

For example, in the painting “The Capture of Prince Diponegoro” by Raden Saleh, it is not criticized based on its technical quality, but also the connection between the object, content, theme, purpose, and moral message that the painter wants to convey.

Stages in Fine Art Criticism

As has been written before, in making a critique of the art work it cannot be arbitrary. Must go through several stages first. Well, the following are the general stages that must be done before compiling a critique of a work of art.

1. Description

The first stage is description in the form of finding, recording, and describing everything that is seen as it is. Well, in order for this stage to go well, the critic must understand and know the general terms that are often used in the art world. Without that understanding, critics have difficulty describing what they see.

2. Formal Analysis

The second stage is formal analysis in the form of tracing a work of art based on its formal structure or constituent elements. At this level, the critic must understand the elements as well as the principles of arrangement in fine arts.

3. Interpretation

The third level is interpretation in the form of interpreting the meaning of a work of art. Covers themes highlighted, symbols presented, other issues. This stage is open and influenced by the point of view and insight of the critic. The wider his vision, the richer the interpretation of the meaning he criticizes.

4. Evaluation or Assessment

The last stage is the evaluation alias evaluation which is in the form of determining the quality of a work of art when compared to other works of art of the same type. Comparisons will be made with various aspects, both formal aspects and context aspects. Well, in this stage usually use steps in the form of:

1. Relating as many works of art to be evaluated as possible with similar works of art.
2. Determine the purpose or function of the artwork to be examined.
3. Determining the extent to which the artwork “deviates” from what has been there before.
4. Examining works of art in terms of specific needs and the point of view behind them.

Function and Purpose

The compilation of criticism of fine art works is not done solely to “show off” the critic’s vision of the art world to the public. Many functions and purposes can be accepted through the criticism of this work of art.

The Function and Purpose of Fine Art Criticism

1. Bridging artistic perception and appreciation as well as aesthetics in works of art. Usually, between art creators and art connoisseurs.
2. For art creators, this criticism can be feedback to reflect on their expressive communication.
3. Creating a point of view on the interpretation of works of art.
4. Make it easier for the general public to understand what the content of the artwork is.
5. As a form of appreciation for works of art.
6. As an evaluation activity on the statement of good and bad values ​​with the context of fine art.
7. Gaining satisfaction in discussing works of art.

Understanding What an Art Critic Is

Previously, Reader had encountered the word “critic” several times. However, does Reader know what a critic is in the art world?

An art critic is someone who criticizes a work of art belonging to others or his own (self-critic). Ideally, an art critic should have sharp senses, thoughts and feelings in a work of art. Well, the sharpness of the senses goes into the ability of reasoning and creativity…

Just a little trivia, an art critic must also understand various theories, starting from the theory of art science, philosophy of art, elements of art, anthropology of art, sociology of art, to the review of modern and contemporary art. Later, those theories are used to strengthen the construction of the criticism so that it is more objective.

Not only theory, an art critic must also have experience and association in terms of observing, researching, and comparing a work of art. The experience will also later be very helpful in enriching critical insight. Another thing that an art critic should pay attention to is how to understand the artist’s thoughts and feelings. Even the biography and life of the artist of the work of art will not escape the observation of an art critic.

When an art critic delivers his criticism in written form, then the medium of criticism is language. The language used is of course effective and communicative, both when delivered orally and in writing. The meaning of effective language refers to aspects of grammar that are good and correct, appropriately used, and in accordance with the public target. Meanwhile, the meaning of communicative language is that the language is easily understood by readers or listeners, according to their intellectual level.

Definition of Criticism – Every human being has the freedom to think. This is what makes us have the right to give criticism or evaluation. Where criticism is meant here is criticism that can build to make someone or something better than before.

In addition, criticism can also be interpreted as providing an assessment of something. For example, when you are watching something like a movie. Well, not infrequently we will comment on what we have watched.

The act of giving comments or evaluations can fall into the category of criticism. Actually, the assessment is not only criticism, but there are also essays. So that you also understand more about criticism, here is a complete explanation.

Definition of Criticism

Common criticism is said to be a deeper type of analysis about a work that uses theoretical studies to provide an evaluation, interpretation or observation about the work.

Because criticism is an evaluation, then the text of criticism also has a purpose in explaining the advantages and disadvantages of something like a work. In addition, criticism can also provide input or solutions to the creators of a work. Usually, some things that often experience criticism are film, literature, music, painting, dance and drama.

The word criticism itself comes from the Greek language, Clitikos , which has the meaning of distinguishing. Whereas according to the Big Indonesian Dictionary or KBBI, criticism is criticism or feedback or satisfaction that is sometimes also accompanied by a description and consideration of the good and bad of a work, opinion and so on.

In addition, criticism can also be interpreted as an expression or response related to the good or bad of an action that will be or has already been made. The existence of criticism can also make the work more tested for quality.

In other words, criticism can also be interpreted as an opinion against another opinion which is based on an observation and analysis in advance which will then be interpreted against a position that supports or does not support, contradicts or does not contradict the object being criticized.

Criticism based on its function

After we learn together about the meaning of criticism in general, we will then learn about the type of criticism seen in terms of its function. Where criticism based on its function is still divided into several more categories.

Well, so that you can better understand the type of criticism based on its function, here is a complete explanation.

1. Journalistic Criticism

Journalistic criticism is criticism about the results of research that will be presented openly to the public. Usually, journalistic criticism will be expressed in mass media such as newspapers. Journalistic criticism is not only on works of art, but also on exhibition activities.

The existence of journalistic criticism is almost the same as popular criticism, but more detailed and sharper in terms of its evaluation. Because journalistic criticism uses the mass media, its existence can influence the public’s perception of the quality of what is being typed.

There are several characteristics possessed by journalistic criticism, among them are as follows.

1. Written for newspaper readers.
2. Not much confiscate the news column in the newspaper.
3. Limited writing time.
4. Only as news

2. Popular Criticism

Next, there is popular criticism, where this popular criticism is almost the same as journalistic criticism because it is intended specifically for public consumption. Even so, popular criticism is general, up to the introduction or publication of a work of art.

The style of language used in popular works will be easier for the general public to understand. This is due to the use of simple terms. In addition, writing popular criticism can also be done by writers who do not have specific skills in the art world. Some of the characteristics of popular criticism are as follows.

1. Can be written by a general writer.
2. Seeing the reality that is developing in society.
3. The language is easy to digest and simpler.

3. Criticism of Education

There is also educational criticism or commonly referred to as pedagogic. Where this pedagogic is an activity of giving criticism with the aim of increasing sensitivity to artistic and aesthetic aspects as a process of learning art.

Usually, this educational criticism is applied to art education institutions. Therefore, the existence of educational criticism will be able to improve the quality of artwork from students. If it is applied to educational institutions such as public schools, then the existence of this educational or pedagogic criticism will be present in art subjects.

Just like other types of criticism, educational criticism also has several characteristics as follows.

1. Responsive nature.
2. There is a standard form of value.
3. Done in an educational institution environment.
4. There is freedom of discussion.

4. Scientific or Scientific Criticism

Further, there is a type of scientific or scholarly criticism. Where this type of criticism has an academic nature that also requires knowledge, ability and high sensitivity in evaluating a work of art.

Usually, this scientific criticism will be delivered by a critic who is already an expert in a certain field such as art and must follow academic methodology.

In the field of art, the existence of this scientific criticism will be used as a reference for collectors and curators of art intuition, for example those in galleries, museums and auction houses. The characteristics of scientific criticism are as follows.

1. Apply certain methodologies or rules in criticizing.
2. The results are not absolute.
3. Scientific in nature.
4. Developed by researchers in a neutral and fair manner.

Types of Criticism Based on the Point of Refusal

In addition to the type of criticism based on its function, criticism is also divided into types based on its starting point. In this type it is still divided into several categories in it. Well, for you to understand better, here are some categories that are in the criticism based on the point of departure.

1. Expressivist Criticism

Furthermore, there is expressionistic criticism, which is one of the types of criticism that is often used in works of art. In that field, critics are more inclined to give evaluations and respond to quality evaluations of ideas and feelings that artists want to consume through the artwork they create.

In expressionistic criticism, it will be more related to the title, theme, content and visualization of objects featured in a work of art.

2. Formalistic Criticism

Formalistic criticism is also often used in the field of art. Where the purpose of formalistic criticism on artworks is to configure its formal aspects. Simply put, related to the manufacturing element.

For example, in the art of painting, it will be more inclined to visual elements such as lines, colors, textures and so on. In addition, this critique also discusses related to the techniques and materials used in fine art works.

3. Instrumentalistic Criticism

Instrumentalistic criticism of a work of art will be more directed towards the achievement of goals, moral, religious, political and also psychological. In instrumentalistic criticism will not question too much the formal reality that is in the artwork. But instrumentalistic criticism will focus more on aspects of the context in the present and in the past.

Tips for Giving Constructive Criticism

The existence of criticism on something will make it have the best quality. Therefore, criticism is needed that can build what is criticized. However, it cannot be denied that not everyone is able to give constructive criticism.

Therefore, it is important for us to know more about how to give constructive criticism. Because, the assessment we give will have an impact on something that is being criticized.

There are several ways that can be done when giving criticism so that the evaluation we give can be constructive instead of bringing down. Well, to be more clear, here are some tips in giving constructive criticism.

1. Start On A Positive Way

You will be able to find something positive to say in the process of giving constructive feedback. Even like a statement of appreciation that is spoken sincerely and honestly can be one form of constructive criticism. Where the positive appreciation you say will make others feel appreciated. Of course you can add positive criticism behind the appreciation given before.

2. Avoid Emotions

When you give criticism in an emotional state, then it is most likely that the presentation done looks emotional, angry as well as body language and tone of voice will make other people more defensive and less consider the existence of the criticism you give. Therefore, in giving criticism try not to be in an emotional state.

3. Smile and Use Warm Body Language

Let others know if you are someone who can give them empathy. This will make him feel more comfortable and don’t forget to show if you also feel the same way as them.

4. Pay attention to the tone of voice

In order not to create an emotional impact, you should also keep the tone of your voice so that it can appear stable and friendly. Where the tone of voice is also able to communicate many things and sometimes even more than a word that has been chosen.

Try not to raise your voice or allow tension to arise. Use a tone of voice that can really provide comfort when you listen to the recipient of the criticism if the situation is the opposite.

5. Avoid Negative Body Language

Avoid negative body language, blaming or attacking personally. This needs to be done in order to further reduce the possibility of the assumption that you are speaking in an angry state. Also avoid using judgmental and abusive language.

6. State Your Opinion Specifically

The more specific the criticism you give, the easier it will be to carry out the criticism. Focus on the main objective, not even on your opinion. Give a more detailed explanation for each criticism given.

For example, by giving key aspects such as more specific examples so that people receiving criticism can better know what they should do.

7. Give Encouragement to Criticize Yourself

In some cases showing that letting the person concerned find the solution independently before you give an opinion on what to do is one of the right actions. Therefore, you can also give encouragement so that the concerned party can try to criticize themselves.

8. Focusing more on the behavior than on the person

In giving criticism it will be better if you focus on the behavior and not on the person. Therefore, in giving an assessment of personal characteristics, one should be more careful. This is because such actions can sometimes make someone hurt.

9. Provide Helpful Feedback

When you want to help others to be able to change in a positive way. Of course in this condition you need to convey things that can make the related parties do something rather than you conveying things beyond their control.

Giving criticism related to the things they can do will make you look like you are building and empowering them. On the other hand, giving criticism by conveying things he can’t do will make them feel uncomfortable.

This is because they cannot do anything about the situation that is happening, even though they basically want to do a certain action to be better.

10. Avoid Talking Too Much

If you really don’t want to make others feel overwhelmed about the criticism given, then avoid using too many words. Criticizing with too many words, even in a positive form, will still create the effect of presenting a list of problems to the relevant parties. This will make the nature of the conversation carried out negatively.

11. Know When to Stop Criticizing

Knowing when to stop talking is also one method of constructive criticism. Where you can try to criticize one or two of you and end the conversation. Repeating the same problem will not be productive or will even trigger negative feelings in the person who is criticized. Find the signs when your criticism feels enough delivered.

12. Follow Up

When you finish giving criticism, then you can try to give observations. In this case you can observe the person after talking to you. Try to give an assessment of the progress he has made.

If possible, discuss more concrete steps in order to achieve the goals of the evaluation you gave earlier. Give praise for every progress he has made.

Accepting and praising the success of others is also able to provide an incentive for that person to continue their good efforts and make them feel valued and appreciated.

The Impact of Constructive Criticism

It cannot be denied that giving positive criticism is really difficult. Because some things that are considered painless are actually the opposite. Therefore, applying some of the tips above can help you to give constructive criticism.

Interestingly, there are several positive impacts that will be obtained by the relevant parties when receiving positive criticism that you have presented. Where they will start to continue learning, wanting to grow to a better side.

In addition, the existence of criticism will also make them more aware of any shortcomings they have. In fact, it is not rare that the presence of constructive criticism can trigger a person to control his emotions.

Well, that’s a complete description related to the meaning of criticism to its impact. By knowing the explanation above, you will find it easier to give constructive criticism without having to be afraid to express an assessment.

Definition of Tropical Climate, Characteristics of Tropical Climate and Distribution of Tropical Climate – Climate is a situation where there are average weather conditions in an area for a long period of time (minimum 30 years). Climate is influenced by the atmosphere, air temperature, air humidity, rainfall, sunlight, and of course the equator.

The world has four climates, namely tropical, subtropical, temperate, and polar. The difference in climate in various parts of the world is caused by the equator.

In the hemisphere close to the equator will have a tropical and subtropical climate. While the part of the earth that is far from the equator will have a moderate and polar climate. Tropical climate is an area located between the isotherm line on the northern and southern parts of the earth

Often people think that climate, weather, and season are the same. Although all three are different. Climate as explained above. Weather is a behavior of the atmosphere in the short term. While the season is a period of time in which there is a dominant weather phenomenon.

Reader, want to know more about tropical climate? Come on, check out the following comments.

Definition of Tropical Climate

Tropical regions are divided into two according to natural conditions. The first is a dry tropical region, including steppes, dry savannas, and deserts. Then the second humid climate includes tropical rainforests, savannas, and areas that have a wet season.

According to Lippsmeier (1994), Indonesia enters the tropical rainforest part of the area around the equator up to about 15 degrees in the north and south. The character of this climate is usually characterized by high precipitation and humidity.

A climate like this also has the character of little wind, moderate to strong solar radiation, little heat exchange due to high humidity.

This climate has two seasons each year, namely the dry season and the rainy season. The dry season usually occurs between March and August. While the rainy season usually occurs between September and February.

1. Relatively high air humidity reaches above 90%.
2. Has high rainfall.
3. The annual temperature in Indonesia can be more than 18 degrees, then in the dry season it can reach 38 degrees.
4. The difference between seasons in Indonesia is not very noticeable. Except during periods of light rain and heavy rain accompanied by strong winds.
5. While the dry climate shows some characteristics as follows:
6. Have low air humidity below 50%.
7. Has low rainfall.
8. High solar radiation because it is rarely covered by clouds, so the sunlight directly reaches the ground.
9. There are many deserts, this happens because of low rainfall.
10. When it is at extreme temperatures, there is often a breakdown or explosion of rocks.

The Science of Climate Change book consists of 6 chapters containing an explanation of the phenomenon of global climate change and its implications. This book is here to form the basis of a framework of thinking in understanding the phenomenon of climate change and its impact, which is organized with logical logic and easy-to-understand language, as well as based on scientific sources.

This book published by Bumi Aksara can be a reference in the subject of climate change and is expected to be able to encourage various parties to also participate in reducing the impact that may occur as a result of climate change. 

Characteristics of a Tropical Climate

Each climate must have its own characteristics or characteristics. Below will be explained some characteristics of the tropical climate. Characteristics of a tropical climate include:

1. Having high rainfall, and longer in each year, this also makes the soil in the tropical climate fertile.
2. Evaporation of sea water is quite high because there are clouds in the atmosphere.
3.  The tropical climate area is located between 23.5 degrees LU and 23.5 degrees LS.
4.  Air temperature change is normal and not extreme.
5. It has a low air pressure, and the pressure change is slow
6. It has a small annual amplitude of around 1-5 degrees Celsius, except for the daily amplitude which is larger.
7. Wet tropical regions are usually plants that grow in green and dense forests.
8. In dry tropical regions there are many savannas.
9. Due to the movement of the sun’s circulation, the tropical climate has two seasons, namely the dry season and the rainy season.
10. Rainfall in tropical climates is higher and longer compared to other climates in the world.
11. The tropical climate region receives sunlight every year because it is located close to the equator.
12. Has an average high air temperature due to the vertical position of the sun. Generally, the air temperature is around 20-30 degrees Celsius. It can even reach more than 30 degrees Celsius in some places.
13. Tropical climate can affect global climate if it has significant changes.
14. The air temperature in a tropical climate is very high. During the day it can reach 45 degrees Celsius, and 10 degrees Celsius at night.
15. The dry tropical climate region of the air can turn quickly, this is due to the earth’s return radiation which also happens quickly.

In Indonesia itself, which is included as a tropical rainforest, it has a diverse flora and fauna in it. Get to know the various fauna available through the book Meet the Animal Habitat: Tropical Rainforest Series below.

Distribution of Tropical Climate Regions

Not only in Indonesia, several other countries also have the same climate, which is a tropical climate. A country that has a tropical climate is a country that is in the tropic of cancer zone , 23.5 degrees LU, and the tropic of capricorn 23.5 degrees LS. This tropical climate region always gets full vertical sunlight during the day. Of course, this tropical region is crossed by the equator.

Countries that have a tropical climate include several states in the Americas, Asia, and countries in the Middle East. Here are the details:

1. States in the Americas

• All countries in Central America
• Caribbean Islands Region
• Nassau in the Bahamas
• Upper South America includes Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Suriname, Paraguay, Argentina, Venezuela, northern Chile, and Brazil.
• Part of Mexico

2. The Asian continent

• South East Asia
• Hong Kong
• Maldives Islands
• Part of Taiwan
• Part of Bangladesh
• Southern part of India

3. Countries in the Middle East

• Yemen
• Southern Saudi Arabia
• Oman
• United Arab Emirates

This book explains the causes of climate change and the ways humans can do to stop it. With straightforward language that can be understood by various circles. So, come on, buy the book because that way we can find out the small efforts that can be done together to save the Earth.

Tropical Climate Type

You should know that tropical climates are divided into three types. The division of this type of tropical climate is based on the amount of rainfall in each region. Here are the three types of tropical climates.

1. Tropical Rainforest Climate

The climate in this tropical rain forest is in the region of the equator, which is around 10-15 degrees LU and LS. This area has calm winds with high rainfall, even the dry season in this area only occurs for two months.

Countries that have a tropical rainforest climate include Indonesia, Congo, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Brunei, Madagascar, Suriname, Singapore, Philippines, Brazil, Micronesia, Fiji, Sri Lanka, Colombia, Peru, Nicaragua and surrounding areas.

Reader can learn about this tropical rain forest through the book Extrim Sport – Tropical Rain Forest whose presentation of information is attractively packaged in the form of an adventure story.

2. Tropical Monsoon Climate

This monsoon climate has the same character as a tropical rainforest, the difference is that the tropical monsoon climate is more exposed to sunlight. This climate has warm weather throughout the year.

Countries that have a tropical monsoon climate include Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Guyana, Southwest Africa, and Southeast Brazil.

3. Tropical Savannah Climate

The area that has a tropical savanna climate is the driest tropical climate area because it has minimal rainfall. In areas with a tropical savannah climate, droughts often occur which cause flora and fauna to die.

Countries that have a tropical savanna climate include Sudan, East Africa, South Africa, Northern Australia, Central Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Western Madagascar.

Wet Tropical Climate Factors in Indonesia

Indonesia is located on the equator which has a tropical climate. Indonesia falls into the wet tropical category. This is also influenced by the shape and location of Indonesia as an archipelago country and surrounded by the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.

That is what makes Indonesia have a wet tropical climate. A lot of sea evaporation brings a lot of rain and makes it humid.

Other factors also affect the wet tropical climate in Indonesia, and there are three scales that affect Indonesia’s climate. Here are the factors.

1. Global Scale

On this scale it means that Indonesia is surrounded by the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. As well as a direct border with the Asian continent and Australia. With the location of Indonesia like that makes Indonesia have a Wet Tropical Climate.

2. Regional Scale

On this scale, it means that the Indonesian archipelago is surrounded by 5 large islands, not including the small islands spread from Sabang to Merauke, as well as surrounded by the sea and straits.

3. Local Scale

On this scale it means that Indonesia has towering mountains. Mountains have an influence on rainfall and temperature, as well as climate. This is because the mountain has a lower temperature than the sea surface.

Flora and Fauna in Tropical Climates

Different climates will produce different flora and fauna as well. Each flora and fauna has its own life expectancy. If it is not suitable for the climate then they will not be able to live in the area.

In addition to climate, the type of soil is also influential for plant life. Different soil will also grow different plants as well. Not only that, the influence of other living things is also an important factor, as well as the intensity of sunlight because flora needs sunlight.

1. Flora of Tropical Climates

As we know that regions with a tropical climate have tropical rainforests. The characteristic of tropical rainforests is to have homogeneous plants and thick leaves, and the forest will tend to be darker. The types of flora that will be found in tropical climates are:

• Meranti ( Shorea and Parashorea )
• Pinus or Tusam
• Keruing (Dipterocarpus)
• Black Wood ( Diospyros sp )
• Palm ( Palmae )
• Ironwood ( Eusideroxylon zwageri )
• Chalk ( Dryobalanops )
• Acacia ( Acacia auriculiformis )

As we know that Indonesia is a country with a tropical climate and is known for its fertile soil so it is blessed with a variety of plants beneficial to human health.

This book deserves to be owned as a source of information, knowledge, and insight to readers that in addition to having economic value, it turns out that flowers produced by plants are also known as herbs that can prevent and cure various diseases suffered by the community.

2. Tropical Climate Fauna

Animals that live in tropical climates are also animals that are resistant to weather, temperature, and the surrounding environment. In the wild this can be called natural selection. Here are the types of animals in tropical climates:

• African fauna: gorillas, elephants, pangolins, camels, hippos.
• Australis fauna as well as the Pacific islands and Eastern Indonesia: paradise, cockatoo, kiwi, platypus, and koala.
• Fauna of Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Western Indonesia: bears, tigers, rhinos, deer, orangutans, several types of reptiles, and fish.
• Fauna of Central America and South Africa: bats, bulls, jaguars, kingfishers, and endemic fish such as piranhas.

This book is suitable for children’s knowledge about the habitat of tropical rainforest animals. Equipped with beautiful and amazing photos and a short explanation wrapped in simple language that is easy for children to understand. Discover and collection of books similar to the Get to Know Animal Habitat Series.

Reader can also see various other interesting facts about fauna in tropical regions through the 200 Important Facts about Animals & Their Habitats: Tropical Regions & Rainforests below.

Tropical Climate Economic Sector

Economy is an important thing for every country. Employment in a country is also determined by the climate in that country. Indonesia has a tropical climate where the work area is not far from nature. Here are some of the livelihoods of people with a tropical climate:

1. Agriculture and Horticulture

This job is suitable for regions that have a tropical climate because they have enough sunlight and high rainfall. For example, when the rainy season arrives, farmers work their land to grow crops. The plantation workers will also produce quality fruit, with good color and good taste. This is also due to the soil and enough sunlight.

2. Sea Mining and Fishing

Tropical regions in Southeast Asia mostly utilize marine resources as a means of livelihood. Marine resources that are utilized such as fish, salt, petroleum, and also natural gas. The vastness of the sea in Southeast Asia and having abundant natural resources make some people in Southeast Asia use the sea as a source of livelihood.

3. African Agriculture, Mining and Industry

Not only in Southeast Asia, the African region that has a tropical climate also has some people working in agriculture, mining, and industry. As with other tropical climate regions, there are many natural resources that can be used for food or other raw materials.

Specifically, this book discusses the study of environmental politics, fisheries, and food which are strategic sectors in Indonesia. In that way, this book is worthy of your possession to increase your insight into strategic sectors in the country of Indonesia.

Conclusion

Tropical climate is a region that is between the isotherm line of 23.5 degrees LU and 23.5 degrees LS. Tropical climates are further divided into two, namely dry tropical climates and wet tropical climates, both of which have some differences such as the existence of savannas in dry tropical climates and the existence of tropical rainforests in wet tropical climates.

The tropical climate also has several characteristics such as high rainfall, low air pressure, normal air temperature changes, a lot of sea water evaporation, and others. The distribution of this tropical climate is quite wide. The tropical climate is spread over several states in Central and South America, the Asian continent, and several countries in the Middle East.

Not only dry and wet tropical climates, but this tropical climate is divided into three more parts, namely the tropical rainforest climate, the tropical monsoon climate, and also the tropical savannah climate. Indonesia has a tropical climate due to several supporting factors on a global, regional, and local scale.

Flora and fauna in tropical climates are also diverse. Flora and fauna in tropical climates are different from regions with non-tropical climates. Things like this happen because the factors of temperature, environment, and soil also affect the existence of flora and fauna.

The tropical climate makes the people in the region have jobs that are not far from nature. People who live in tropical climates partly work in agriculture, plantations, mining, and industry. All these jobs are related to the utilization of natural resources.

Well, that’s the explanation about the meaning, characteristics, distribution, and other things related to tropical climate. It ‘s fun to learn about things related to one’s own region, which Indonesia also includes having a tropical climate.

The meaning of KPI (Key Performance Indicator) and its benefits in the company – In a management, the role of control and evaluation has a very important function in ensuring that an organization’s work plan can be implemented optimally. A good organizational work plan will certainly eventually become the ultimate goal of the organization to be realized well. Therefore, a management that performs control and evaluation is commonly referred to as KPI or Key Performance Indicator.

A performance management system that can run well is usually capable of being a representation of a comprehensive business process in the organization. Key Performance Indicators have a role to measure the performance management system, whether it is running successfully or not even being able to run according to plan.

In addition, the Key Performance Indicator has several measures to describe the performance of a management system related to the organization as a whole to its relationship with its various parts. Currently, many companies that already have a performance management system, only contain a “list of KPIs” so they may not pay too much attention to the relationship between the indicators.

In the span of the last ten years alone, performance management systems such as the Balanced Scorecard or commonly referred to as the BSC began to appear to try to provide accommodation for each indicator that has a relationship and connection. In the balanced scorecard itself, the relevance of each existing indicator is only qualitatively described.

If the relationship between these indicators can be described quantitatively, it may be that the performance measurement model can be applied for a more definitive and specific purpose. One example of a more definitive and specific performance measurement model is to carry out improvement programs or programs to make predictions about system behavior in the future.

A. Meaning of KPI (Key Performance Indicator)

KPI or Key Performance Indicator can be understood as a measuring tool that is used to create an overview of the company’s effectiveness in achieving its business goals. Companies themselves usually apply Key Performance Indicators to measure the success of their targets.

From the explanation, the characteristics of the Key Performance Indicator can be determined based on non-financial measures, including:

a. Measurements that are often used (Regular measurements)

b. Measures known by management

c. Everyone in an organization has understood and understood KPI

d. Responsible for individuals and teams

e. Has a very significant effect

f. Has a positive effect

In its application, Key Performance Indicator can be measured in daily, weekly to monthly periods. A good Key Performance Indicator is basically something that has an important role and consistently gets attention from management. When there is a member of management who deviates from the Key Performance Indicator, then the management can decide on an action by summoning the person responsible.

B. Definition of KPI According to Members

1. Iveta (2012)

According to Iveta (2012), Key Performance Indicator or KPI can be defined as a measure that has a quantitative and gradual nature for companies. Which measures contain various perspectives and are based on concrete data analysis, as well as being the starting point for determining the purpose as well as the organization of the organization’s strategy.

2. Warren (2011)

According to Warren (2011), Key Performance Indicator or KPI has the meaning as a measurement used to assess how an organization implements the strategic vision that has been determined. The strategic vision itself can be meant as a purpose that refers to how the organization’s strategy can be interactively integrated into the organization’s overall strategy.

3. Parmenter (2007)

According to Parmenter (2007), Key Performance Indicator or KPI has a definition as something that is most critical to creating a successful organization in the present and in the future.

4. Banerjee and Buoti (2012)

According to Banerjee and Buoti (2012), Key Performance Indicator or KPI is something that is used to measure on a scale and quantitatively to evaluate the performance of the organization when it wants to realize the goals and targets of the organization that have been determined. KPI itself can be applied to make measurable objective policies, analyze trends, and support decision-making.

C. Benefits of KPIs

KPI or key performance indicator can also be something that has the most effective critical in creating an organization or company to be successful, both for now and for the future. Well, here are some of the benefits of KPI for employees, including:

1. Provide references for companies to get quality employees.

2. It becomes much easier for employees to measure and evaluate employee performance and reduce certain elements of subjectivity.

3. Employees become more aware of what management expects of them

4. Employee performance results are much more measurable and good

D. Types of KPIs

Broadly speaking, Key Performance Indicators or KPIs can be divided into two types, namely Financial KPIs and Non-Financial KPIs. The following is an explanation of the two types of KPI, including:

1. Financial Key Performance Indicators

The first type of Key Performance Indicator is Financial KPI. Financial KPI itself can be said to be a key performance indicator that has a connection with finance. Some examples of Financial KPIs that need to be considered are as follows:

a. Gross Profit KPI

Financial KPI of the gross profit type is a KPI that can be used to measure the amount of money left over from income. With a note, the amount of residual money has been deducted from the Selling Price or often referred to as HPP.

b. Net Profit KPI

KPI Financial is a type of net profit, which is a KPI that is usually applied to measure the amount of money left over from income and has been reduced by the Selling Price as well as several other business costs, ranging from interest costs to taxes.

c. KPI Gross Profit Margin (Gross Profit Margin)

Financial KPI of the gross profit margin type can be meant as a KPI that can be used to measure the percentage value obtained by dividing Gross Profit and Income.

d. KPI Net Profit Margin (Net Profit Margin)

Financial KPI of the net profit margin type has the purpose of being a KPI that is used to measure the percentage value obtained with the provision of having divided the net profit according to income.

e. KPI Current Ratio (Current Ratio)

Financial KPI of the current ratio type can be said to be a KPI that can be applied to measure the financial performance of the liquidity balance by dividing current assets by current liabilities.

Common financial or financial indicators are used to predict the effectiveness of a business that will survive when experiencing a sudden decline.

2. Non-Financial Key Performance Indicators

Basically, Non-Financial KPIs are KPIs that can indirectly influence the financial situation of a company. The following are some examples of Non-Financial KPIs that need to be considered, including:

a. Manpower Turnover

b. Customer Satisfaction metrics

c. Repeat Customer to New Customer Ratio

d. Market Share

E. Factors That Influence KPI Effectiveness

KPIs have a very important influence when there is a follow-up from KPIs that have been determined previously. In some cases it was found that companies usually adopt the most popular KPI used in an industry. It’s just that, once the KPI is implemented in the company, it will raise many questions about why the KPI does not reflect or describe the company’s performance.

In carrying out the development of the Key Performance Indicator compilation strategy, you are required to have team members who are able to see various things about the company. Some of these things include questions about what the organization’s goals are, how the plan is to achieve them and who has the right to take action based on the information that has been obtained.

The determination of Key Performance Indicators should be a continuous and repeated process involving input from analysts, department heads and of course managers. After that, you and the team can get a better and effective understanding while answering two questions, namely, how the Key Performance Indicator measures a company’s business process and who has the right to follow up on the company’s business process.

One of the ways to create relevant Key Performance Indicators is to use SMART criteria. SMART itself is an abbreviation of several words, namely specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, time-bound. Well, the following is an explanation of the five things that are KPI factors based on SMART, including:

1. What is the purpose of the specific enterprise.

2. Can you measure the achievement of the goal.

3. Can the purpose be achieved?

4. What is the purpose related to the company.

5. How long will it take to achieve the goal.

F. Application of KPI in the Enterprise

In applying Key Performance Indicators to a business organization, there are 4 basic criteria that need to be met first before an organization can state that they have successfully applied KPIs in the company’s operational activities. An explanation of the four criteria is as follows:

1. Collaboration between employees, teams, suppliers and customers

2. Decentralization from the management level to the operational level

3. Integration or linkage between measurements, reports and actions

4. Relationship of KPI and strategy

In order to be able to apply Key Performance Indicators properly and optimally, there needs to be an interconnected system process, both from the organizational environment in building a comfortable atmosphere such as employees, managers, and shareholders as well as various other external stakeholders, such as customers and suppliers. It also needs to be applied at the time of the report, where the report should be disciplined, efficient, and focused on improving decision-making.

When implementing and applying Key Performance Indicators, one of the things that need to be noted is about defining the results or goals of each KPI or key performance indicator. Not only that, in applying the Key Performance Indicator there is a method that is commonly used in determining planning goals. The method is a method that uses SMART criteria (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time Sensitive).

Well, the following is a SMART explanation that needs to be observed, including:

1. Specific

The purpose or results when applying Key Performance Indicators should be clear and specific. This is because the existence of a general or broad purpose or result can result in the application not being optimal and tending to not be able to be expected. When the goal or result has been determined clearly and specifically, it will be easier to know when the goal or result can be achieved.

2. Measurable

Measurable or can be interpreted as a measure has a definition as a goal or result that can be measured. In determining the purpose or results, it is very important to measure, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The right measure can be placed in determining the relationship with standard performance or expectations of a performance.

3. Achievable

Achievable or means the fastest has a very important role when applying the Key Performance Indicator. The application of KPI should be created based on the challenges that organizations and companies have. This will be very influential because it can inspire the organization to create the best results or goals.

4. Realistic

Applying Key Performance Indicators should be based on realistic thinking. In creating an idea in the form of a result or a goal that must be achieved, then the steps that need to be taken are realistic and result-oriented thinking.

5. Time Sensitive

In applying Key Performance Indicators, each result or goal has a time limit that will be agreed upon by the organization as a whole. This is done so that all parties can be motivated to achieve goals or results according to the deadline and compact. The fact that a goal or result is basically something that requires a time limit can create an ease in measuring an improvement of a certain goal or the next result.

G. Examples of KPI Analysis of a Company

Developing Key Performance Indicators requires time and company resources. The Key Performance Indicator that is measured is usually an indicator that has been adapted to the needs of the company. In addition, the measurement has also considered the company’s short-term strategy and goals.

An example of the development of a Key Performance Indicator, for example, when a company obtains a satisfactory increase in sales, but the profit obtained by the company is not enough to provide the allocation of funds for the benefit of business growth, then the Key Performance Indicator that is almost certain for the company is the Profit Margin KPI Net and Gross Profit Margin.

The example can be seen based on what is found in the financial report or accounting of the trading company recorded in the company. On the one hand, when profits are in line with expectations and the company’s growth is not as fast as targeted. So, what needs to be done is to consider some non-financial KPIs, be it workforce turnover KPIs, customer satisfaction KPIs, or the ratio of repeat customers to new customers.

That is the discussion about KPI or Key Performance Indicator. Hopefully you can understand the meaning of KPI in depth so that it can be applied to your company.

Definition of Convection, Characteristics, and Examples – Definition of Convection is a natural process where heat is transferred between two liquid substances, two gaseous substances, or between gaseous and liquid substances as long as they are at different temperatures.

In fact, this convection is also referred to as the transfer of heat between gases and solids or between liquids and at different temperatures. But there is still a lot we need to know about convection and in this article, we will discuss it more fully.

Meanwhile, conduction is defined as the transfer of heat between two objects when they are in the same box. The contact meant here is physical contact. In addition, conduction is also often referred to as diffusion.

Well, before we look into some examples, let’s first understand the basic information related to convection. Starting from the meaning of convection, characteristics, and examples:

Definition of Convection

Convection is a term related to physics or more precisely fluid mechanics. The concept of convection itself also has a literal meaning, which is the transfer of heat through a fluid, both in liquid and gas form caused by molecular motion. The movement of molecules that transfer heat can be of two types, namely in large numbers or in individual particles. The first is called advection and the last is called diffusion.

That is the principle of heat transfer that works not only in liquid and gas cases as discussed above. But also in solids too. However, the difference between the two is that heat transfer in solid form is called conduction.

An example in everyday life is the form of electronic goods that work on radiation, microwaves, and so on. The following are some examples of convection that need to be understood.

Characteristics and Examples of Convection

After knowing the meaning of convection, here are some examples of convection around us, including microwave ovens, melting ice cubes, and hot air balloons. Let’s discuss one by one to make it clearer:

1. Microwave Oven

Microwave ovens are one of the most common examples of convection-derived kitchen appliances. This tool works using the principles we have discussed above and we can notice that this tool is usually used to warm a plate of food.

Then, what actually happened in it. So, what happens is that the air in the microwave will be heated and then convection currents are forced into the food inside.

If you place a bowl of soup or a cracker, then you will see that the soup liquid will boil like boiled while the cracker will expand like when we fry it.

2. The melting of ice

The melting of ice is another example of convection that we can see in everyday life. The change of ice from a solid cube to a liquid form occurs due to the hot temperature around it. The temperature of the space around the ice is usually higher than the temperature of the ice itself.

While heat waves or heat currents have a tendency to flow from higher to lower temperatures. That means, the hot temperature in the room flows through the ice. Until that causes the ice to change its shape into a liquid. This principle remains the same as in the case of storms or tornadoes.

3. Air Balloon

The last example is a hot air balloon. By using the principle of convection, hot air balloons will be seen rising above the ground and floating in the air. This mechanism is that the fire inside the balloon will heat the air inside and not let the air out of the area inside the balloon.

Heat Transfer

As we know that heat transfer occurs when there is a temperature difference between two objects that are in direct contact. That’s when the flow of heat from the body appears from the highest temperature to the lowest temperature. Whether it is a liquid or a gas, both are considered fluids and molecular motion is responsible for naturally transferring heat.

Poor thermal conductivity makes forced mass transfer necessary to extract or transfer heat. Either by heating or cooling liquids or solids.

We can see this in boilers that use a heat exchanger made up of metal pipes, where water will circulate inside and gas at a very high temperature outside.

Gases that have a hot temperature will circulate in one direction. This will later produce heat by convection into the metal tube and receive it by conduction.

Then the tube heats up and produces heat by conduction to the water, which circulates in the other direction and receives heat by convection, heating into steam.

Examples of Convection in Everyday Life

Here are some examples of convection in everyday life.

• Boiling water: Here the heat will transfer from the stove to the pot by convection, then heat the water from the bottom. After that, the hot water will rise and the cold water will descend to replace it, this causes a twisting motion.
• Radiator: Places warm air at the top and draws cold air by convection to the bottom.
• A warm cup of tea: The steam that comes out shows the heat transferred to the air by convection.
• Ice melting: Heat that moves into the ice from the air by convection. This causes the ice to melt from a solid to a liquid.
• Thawing frozen food: Frozen food will thaw faster if it is under cold running water when placed in water. This action of flowing water will transfer heat into the food by convection and faster.

Examples of Convection in Meteorology and Geology

The following are some examples of convection originating from Meteorology and Geology.

• Convection mantle: The rock mantle inside the Earth moves slowly due to convection currents that transfer heat from the interior of the Earth to the surface. This is one of the reasons why tectonic plates move slowly around the Earth.
• Oceanic Circulation: The warm water around the equator will circulate by convection towards the poles and the cold water at the poles will move towards the equator.
• Stack effect: This stack effect is also called the chimney effect. Where this is the movement of air in and out of buildings through convection, chimneys or other objects due to buoyancy. In this case, buoyancy will refer to the difference in density in the air between the air inside and outside. This buoyancy force will increase because the higher the structure and the greater the difference between the heat levels inside and outside the air.
• Stellar convection: Stars have convection zones where their energy is moved by convection. Outside the core is the radiation zone where the plasma moves. Currents from convection will form as the plasma rises and the cooled plasma descends.
• Gravitational convection: This is shown when dry salt diffuses into wet soil because fresh water floats in salt water.
• Forced convection: An example of this convection is in the pump or suction device used to facilitate convection as well as in the fan.

Types of Convection

Below is some information about the types of convection that may add to the reader’s knowledge of matters related to convection.

1. Forced Convection and Natural Convection

It should be understood that convection can occur naturally or what is called “natural convection” or due to the presence of moving devices “forced convection”.

An example of forced convection is a fan. A fan is a device that can produce air movement artificially. Where the air in it moves due to the rotation of the fan. While for example natural convection usually occurs because the fluid is lighter when it is hot and becomes heavier when it is cold.

So when the fluid has a hot part and a cold part, then the hot part will naturally move up and for the cold part it will naturally move down.

For example, when the water in the pan is heated, then the water at the bottom will be hot because it is near the fire, then the hot water will move from the bottom to the top surface. At the same time, the water on the top surface tends to be colder so it will move to the bottom of the pan.

2. Gas Convection

When a hot object is surrounded by cold air, the heat will transfer to the air by convection with direct contact. The process is similar but when warm air surrounds a colder object, then the air will become colder when heat is transferred to the object by convection.

3. Fluid Convection

A similar convection process can also occur in liquids. Although at a slower speed according to the viscosity of the liquid. However, it cannot be assumed that the convection in the liquid will result in colder components sinking and warmer ones rising.

Convection of this fluid depends on the fluid itself and the associated temperature. Water will reach its greatest density which is around 4 degrees Celsius. Therefore, in a pool of water, it initially has a temperature of 4 degrees Celsius, where every part that is hot will rise to the top.

If there is a cold part below 4 degrees Celsius, it will rise to the top and the warm water will sink to the bottom.

4. Earth’s Atmospheric Convection

Convection heat transfer will produce wind and air currents. Because during the day, the sun will heat the ground, which will give up some of its energy to the air through conduction and heat with convection. As the air warms, its density will decrease and become lighter.

Colder air will descend, because it is heavier and has a higher density compared to hot air. Part of the hot air will rise and create the current and the rest will move horizontally creating wind.

Hot air that has risen very high will release this heat at night, preventing global warming, and regulating the Earth’s temperature.

Differences in Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

Heat transfer is the physical action of thermal energy that is exchanged between two systems by removing heat. Temperature and heat flow are the basic principles of heat transfer. The amount of heat energy available will be determined by the temperature and the heat flow will represent the movement of heat energy.

In simple terms, heat transfer can be divided into three major categories, including conduction, convection, and radiation. Here is the full explanation:

1. Conduction Process

This conduction will transfer heat through direct molecular collisions. Areas of greater kinetic energy will send heat energy to areas with lower kinetic energy.

High speed particles will collide with slower speed particles. Where particles that have a lower speed will increase the kinetic energy as a result.

Conduction is the most common form of heat transfer and usually occurs through physical contact. For example you put your hand to the window or metal to the open flame.

This heat conduction process depends on the following factors, among others, the temperature gradient, the length of the travel path, the cross-section of the material, and the physical properties of the material. This temperature gradient is a physical quantity that describes the direction and speed of heat travel. Where the temperature flow will always occur from the hottest to the coldest. After finding a thermal equilibrium between the two temperature differences, the thermal transfer will stop.

The cross-section and also the travel crossing, both will play an important role in the conduction process. The larger the size and length of the object, the more energy is needed to heat it. Then the larger the exposed surface area, the more heat will be lost.

Smaller objects with a small cross-section will have minimal heat loss. This physical property will determine which material can transmit heat better. Specifically, the coefficient of thermal conductivity will determine that the metal material will conduct heat better compared to when it comes to conduction.

2. Convection Process

When fluids such as air or liquid are heated and then move away from their source, they will carry heat energy. This type of movement is called convection. The liquid on the hot surface will expand, become less dense, and rise.

At the molecular level, molecules will expand after the introduction of thermal energy. When the temperature of a given mass of liquid increases, the volume of the liquid must increase by the same factor. The effect that exists on the fluid will cause displacement. When hot air rises, it will push denser, cooler air downwards.

3. Radiation Process

Thermal radiation is produced from the emission of electromagnetic waves. The wave will carry energy from the emitting object. Then radiation occurs through a vacuum or transparent media, whether solid or liquid.

This thermal radiation is the result of the random movement of atoms and also the matter in the matter. The movement of protons and charged electrons will produce the emission of electromagnetic radiation. All materials will emit heat energy based on their temperature.

The hotter an object is, the more it emits. The sun is one of the clearest examples of heat radiation that sends heat through the solar system.

This is a commentary on the meaning of convection, its characteristics, and examples. 

Definition of Consumption – Consumption is an activity that aims to reduce or use up goods and services in the context of fulfilling needs and direct satisfaction.

While Consumer is every user of goods and services available. Anyone can be a consumer, such as a household in a family, the government, as well as an industry or company. See a more detailed explanation of the following consumption process, Reader:

Definition of Consumption

Consumption can be interpreted as an activity carried out with the purpose of consuming use value. In addition, this action is also to meet the needs of both individuals or together. People who do consumption activities can be called a consumer.

Consumption is an activity carried out by humans by using and reducing the usefulness of a good or service that has the purpose of meeting the needs of life and human extinction either slowly or all at once. 

Consumption is an inseparable part of economic activities carried out by humans. A person who performs consumption activities is generally referred to as a consumer, while the products consumed are goods and services offered by producers to consumers. 

Consumption has the main purpose that humans want to obtain, which is to meet the needs of life and satisfaction. In general, consumption activities are carried out to meet the daily needs of traditional society, while for modern society consumption activities are carried out to maintain life as well as to obtain pleasure and self-esteem. 

In a society that is still traditional, generally consumption activities are for the fulfillment of daily life needs. Whereas in modern society, their consumption activities are not only to maintain life, but also for pleasure and self-esteem.

Understanding Consumption According to Experts

In order to better understand what consumption means, the following is the definition of consumption according to experts’ opinions:

• According to T. Gilarso (2003),
  the concept of consumption is the starting point and the final goal of all economic activities of society.
• According to Gregory Mankiw (2007)
  the meaning of consumption is the spending of goods and services by households. What is meant by goods are household goods that are durable, including equipment, vehicles, and non-durable goods, such as food and clothing. Expenditure on services referred to are goods that do not have a concrete form, for example education.
• Samuelson and Nordhaus (2001)
  Consumption is production that is done in order to fulfill the purchase of goods and services to obtain satisfaction as well as to fulfill their needs. Consumption is classified into two, namely routine consumption and temporary consumption. Routine consumption has the meaning of expenditure made for the purchase of goods and services over and over again for many years. While the meaning of temporary consumption is any addition that is unexpected in routine consumption.
• According to Muhamad Abdul Halim,
  consumption is the production of household consumption that includes the production carried out by households to obtain goods and services as daily necessities in a certain period.

Examples of Consumption Activities in Daily Life

• A person who buys chicken meat to use as an ingredient in soup or curry.
• A mother who buys lebaran clothes for her family ahead of Eid.
• A student who buys shoes to use at school.
• A man who came to the barber when his hair was felt to be frizzy.
• An employee who orders an online transportation service to go to work.

Everyone has a consumption pattern that is influenced by various factors around them, in the Muslim Fishing Community Consumption Patterns book below, we will analyze the consumption patterns of the local population so that we can find five factors in it.

Consumption Function

Definition of Consumption is an activity in humans that reduces and uses in the use of goods and services to gradually and simultaneously meet the needs of life and satisfaction of people. Other consumption purposes include:

1. Consuming or Reducing the Use Value of an Item at Once

Things that are included in the classification of reducing the use value of a good and service at once are consumable goods or not goods that cannot last long. That is like food and drink. Because if it is not consumed in time, then the materials will be damaged, stale, and expired so that they no longer have any use value.

2. Decreasing the Use Value of Goods and Services Gradually

Things that are included in the classification of gradually reducing the use value of goods and services are for example the use of goods that do not run out in a short period of time. That is, such as cars, motorbikes, clothes, household furniture such as tables, chairs, wardrobes, etc. To reduce the use value of these items requires a long and gradual time.

3. Fulfillment of Physical and Spiritual Needs

The main purpose of an activity on human consumption is to meet their physical and mental needs. Physical needs such as drinking or eating, sports and others. While doing spiritual needs such as entertainment, reading, worship, books and so on.

This is because by fulfilling our physical and spiritual needs, the burden on our bodies and minds will be lightened. 

4. Satisfy Physical Needs

The purpose is to meet physical needs, such as someone who buys slimming products so that the body remains slim and ideal, or consumes drugs as a form of beauty, and can buy good clothes to look beautiful and elegant to meet physical needs in a direct way.

5. Supporting Production Activities

Human desire to consume certain products and services can encourage production activities. These two activities will mutually benefit all parties involved, namely the party that produces and wants profit and the party that consumes and wants satisfaction.

6. Help Adjust the Formulation of the Minimum Wage Tariff for Workers

The consumption activities carried out by the community are used by the government as a yardstick to adjust the formulation of the minimum wage tariff. In addition, this activity can also be used as a reference for determining tax rates and the national budget ratio.

7. As the Starting and Ending Point of Economic Activities

Community consumption behavior also occupies an important position in economic activities because it acts as the starting point as well as the end point of the activity. A person who wants a new mobile phone, for example, will buy the mobile phone and start a transaction in the economic activity. Once the mobile phone is owned and the desire is fulfilled, the economic activity automatically ends at that point.

Characteristics of Consumer Goods

• Consumables have benefits, value and volume that if used will be used up all at once or run out gradually. Consumable or not when an item is consumed can be differentiated into items that can be used up in one use, for example such as: drinks and food. Then items that are used over and over again will wear out or be damaged over time. For example, pants, shirts, shoes, buckets, TVs and others.
• Consumer goods are used to meet the needs of life. If the use of tractors, hoe, hammer and so on. Not included in consumption activities, because the goods or things are included in production.
• Consumer goods can meet the needs of life. For example, modes of transportation such as motorbikes used to travel from home to work are included in consumer goods.
• Consumer goods should be economic goods obtained with sacrifice. For example, food, drink, and clothing are obtained by doing economic transactions in the market. Oxygen or sunlight whose benefits are felt every day are certainly not consumer goods because they are not economic goods.

Characteristics of Consumption Activities

Not everyone can recognize the type of consumptive activity that is done without knowing the characteristics of the activity. One of them is that when doing this economic activity, many people do not realize it. The following is a review of the characteristics of consumptive activities.

1. Done Live

The first characteristic of consumption activities is that these activities can be done directly. With the aim of being able to meet all the needs of the community. In addition to needs, consumptive activities are also carried out to meet community satisfaction.

But basically humans will never feel what is called satisfaction. Where this satisfaction does not have the expected appropriate limit. Because people or society always want to try new things. A small example of this is for example if the community already owns a motorcycle but also wants to own a car. Until when you have a car you don’t use a motorcycle anymore.

2. Consumer Activity Goods

Obtained From Purchases or Sacrifices In order to use consumer goods, you must first make a sacrifice such as purchasing the goods at the store. Like getting bags, clothes, pants, and other things can be found in a store around us.

In addition to the store, these consumables can be obtained from nearby stalls. For consumables that can be obtained from nearby stalls such as ready-made food or drinks. Such as meatballs, tea, chicken noodles, yellow rice, juice, etc. In addition to buying the item, of course you have to prepare the transaction fee. This transaction fee will be used as an exchange value.

3. Goods and Services Used Always Decrease

Next are the goods and services from these consumption activities, if they are used their value will always decrease or run out. Where the goods are like the examples mentioned before, namely books and clothes.

Because the book is always used for writing such as writing school assignments. In addition, clothes also have a reduced value if used.

Because it is true that these clothes do not always last long due to the threads that will slowly become fragile. This is because it is often washed and exposed to direct sunlight. Therefore, these clothes include items whose value will decrease slowly.

4. Having Useful Values

The problem of goods or products from consumption activities has a very beneficial value in meeting the needs of society. The purpose of using this item or product can cause the value of the item to decrease because it is often used. But goods from this consumption activity can be divided into two types.

Where the first type of item is an item whose value will be used up only once. As for examples of this type of goods such as food and drinks. For the second type is the type of goods whose value runs out slowly. In other words that the use of these items is used repeatedly such as clothes and books.

With the development of the era in this world, there are various consumerism issues that develop in society that you can learn in the book Economic Sociology: Capitalism and Consumption in the Era of Post-Modernism Society.

Factors Affecting Consumption

A person will also organize his consumption needs based on the primary and then secondary priorities. For example, basic needs are the needs for food, education, and health. While what is included in the secondary needs are entertainment and recreation.

So when a person’s income experiences a decrease, then the person will cut back on his secondary needs and then prioritize to meet basic consumption needs first. This will suppress the habit of doing excessive consumption patterns. Because basically consumptive behavior will cause negative effects that are not good for a person’s economic condition. While the factors that affect consumption activities include:

• Income – Income has a great influence on a person’s level of consumption. The bigger a person’s income is, then that person will consume more goods or services, and vice versa.
• Education Level – Education greatly influences a person’s mindset in doing consumption activities. The higher the level of education of a person, generally the level of consumption will also be higher, and vice versa.
• Prices of Goods and Services – The price of goods and services can affect a person’s level of consumption. The higher the price of goods and services, the lower the level of consumption, and vice versa.
• Number of Families – A family with a larger number of members will make the level of consumption larger, and vice versa.
• Gender – The need for goods or services between men and women is certainly very different. This will also affect the level of consumption.
• Taste and Style – Some people have better taste and style, both in terms of clothing and other things. This makes their consumption level higher than those who pay less attention to style.
• Customs and Habits – Customs and customs in a region also affect the consumption level of the community.
• Interest rate Classical economists consider that consumption is a function of the interest rate. In particular, they believe that interest rates encourage savings and reduce consumption.

Theory of Consumption

1. Keynes’ Theory of Consumption – John Maynard Keynes (1930)

According to the theory of John Maynard Keynes gives an opinion on the theory of consumption. He said the current amount of consumption is directly related to income. A function or formulation of John Maynard Keynes’s theory to describe the level of consumption at various incomes. Assumptions about consumption theory, namely as follows:

• The marginal propensity to consume is the amount consumed from the income received is between zero and one. From the assumption, it is explained that when a person’s income increases, the level of consumption & savings also increases.
• The ratio of consumption to income, or commonly referred to as the tendency to consume on average goes down when income increases because part of the rest of the income is set aside to save. According to Keynes, the proportion of middle to upper economy savings will be different from the lower economy (poor people). The rich usually save a large amount compared to the poor.
• Income is an important determinant of consumption while interest rates are not so much considered. Based on the theory presented by Keynes, above it can be concluded that a person’s level of consumption is affected by the amount of income.

2. Ernst Engel

Ernst Engel’s theory says that when income levels increase, the proportion of income that will be spent on buying food will decrease or decrease.

This is because Engel’s law mentions that a person’s level of well-being can be said to increase if the ratio of production used for food consumption tends to decrease when compared to production & on the other hand the consumption of production for non-food will increase. Some of the factors that cause the shift in demand for the level of consumption include:

• The per capita income level of the community
• The taste and taste of the consumer on the item
• The price of other goods, especially goods that are complementary and substitute
• Consumer response to the price of the item.

The grouping of demand for consumer goods consists of Superior good (luxury goods), inferior good (goods with low quality), and normal good (normal goods). The definition of superior good is that the change in the amount of goods demanded is greater than the amount of change in consumer income.

Whereas an inferior good is an item that when the consumer’s income increases, the amount of goods demanded will decrease. And normal good are goods that we often see every day in general such as food, clothes and so on.

There are four conclusions formulated by Ernst Engel in his research or commonly referred to as Engel’s law. Among the conclusions he formulated are: When income increases, the percentage of expenditure for consumption tends to decrease (get smaller).

When production in clothing consumption tends to be fixed and does not depend on the level of income. The percentage of consumption expenditure for relative expenditure is fixed & does not depend on the level of income. When income increases, the percentage of expenditure for education, welfare, recreation, luxury goods, and savings also increases.

3. Life Cycle Consumption Theory

This third theory is a theory developed by Franco Modigliani, Albert Ando and Richrad Blumberg in 1950. The life cycle consumption theory is a theory that explains that economic activity is a lifelong activity. According to this life cycle communication theory, socioeconomic factors of a person or household are considered to greatly influence the consumption pattern of the individual or household.

4. Permanent Income Theory

The second theory of consumption is a theory that argues that income affects a person’s level of consumption. The permanent income referred to in this second theory is the average level of income expected or expected by a person in a long period of time. The theory of permanent income states that a person’s consumption level has a proportional relationship with a person’s permanent income.

5. Theory of Relative Income

The third theory is the theory of relative income. This theory is a theory developed by James Duessenberry in 1949. The theory of relative income pays attention to the psychological aspects of households in the face of income changes.

This theory of relative income discusses the consumption level of society which is influenced by the level of disposable income in the past. It is mainly influenced by the highest level of income ever achieved by a household because current consumption patterns are still influenced by past consumption patterns.

Positive and Negative Effects of Consumption Behavior

Consumption behavior or consumption activities have factors that can affect the difference or high or low level of a person’s consumption. In addition, consumption activities or consumption behavior have positive and negative aspects if seen through how individuals or households consume an item by adhering to the guidelines of economic motives and economic principles . Here is the author’s summary, about the positive and negative aspects of consumption behavior.

1. Positive Impact of Consumption Behavior

There are three positive aspects of consumption behavior, the following three aspects.

• Can maintain the continuity of the economic cycle for consumers and producers.
• Consumption behavior can cause economic activities or the economy to become more advanced.
• Consumption behavior makes the circulation of goods and services faster as a consequence of the actions of sustainable consumption.

Meanwhile, the positive aspect of consumption behavior for producers is that it can increase the production of goods or services that are sold, while the positive aspect of consumption behavior for consumers is the fulfillment of life needs. In addition, the consumptive attitude of consumers can bring demand which then drives the economic growth of a country.

2. Negative impact of consumption behavior

As you know, consumption behavior also has negative aspects, here are three negative aspects of consumption behavior that the author has summarized.

• Consumptive attitudes and consumption behavior can cause an individual to be unthrifty or wasteful.
• The nature of being unthrifty or extravagant causes an individual to get stuck in debt.
• Consumption behavior can decrease a person’s interest or motivation to save, resulting in a decrease in the source of investment funds at the bank.

Those are the three positive and negative aspects of consumption behavior or consumption activities, be wise when you do consumption activities to meet your daily needs and fulfill your desires.

Consumption and consumption activities are different but still related. Consumption is an act done to meet the needs of an individual or group, while consumption activities are part of the household income used by a person to finance the purchase of various goods and services as well as other needs.

Consumption is an inseparable part of economic activities carried out by humans. Both have a connection and are influenced by the same factors, namely social, amount of income or production, taste or style, customs, price of goods and services to be purchased, number of family members and education.

Consumption activities are covered by four theories, namely life cycle consumption theory, permanent income theory, relative income theory, Keynes’ consumption theory. Basically, the four theories of consumption discuss how consumption activities occur in a household or individual that is influenced by various things in accordance with the theory of consumption.

That is the discussion about consumption and consumption activities that includes the meaning, characteristics, influencing factors and theories of consumption that the writer can summarize. Happy learning! Happy reading!

Understanding the Constitution – A country that adheres to the concept of constitutionalism is a state system that makes the constitution the embodiment of the highest law. Indonesia is a country that adheres to that belief. As stated in the Constitution of 1945, article 1 paragraph 2, which states that sovereignty rests in the hands of the people and is implemented in accordance with the Constitution.

The understanding of constitutionalism can be defined as an understanding that adheres to the principle that the embodiment of the highest law that must be obeyed by all components of the country, including the people and the government, is the constitution. Constitutionalism can be used as an integral component of a country that adheres to a democratic system. That is the basis on which a democratic government system will not be possible without the implementation of constitutionalism as the embodiment of the highest law.

Well, this article will discuss the meaning of the constitution comprehensively and in detail. The following is the meaning of the constitution that you need to understand, which is as follows:

A. Meaning of the Constitution

In a paper published by the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Indonesia with the title “Constitution and Constitutionalism”, the Professor of Law from Andalas University namely Professor Yuliandri revealed that constitution and constitutionalism are two forms of words that have a relationship and can confirm each other’s existence.

Constitutionalism itself is an understanding that is very necessary to be guarded through the formation of the constitution. It is the same as that the constitution is a means for the understanding of constitutionalism to be implemented in a country.

Professor Yuliandri explained in the book that the word constitution is a word that comes from the French language, namely constiture, which has the meaning of forming. The word constitute itself has the meaning of the formation of a country. Therefore, the constitution has a position as the highest form of law. The constitution itself can be formed from the thoughts of the country’s founders.

In the Indonesian national system, the founders of the country formed the 1945 Constitution as the Indonesian national constitution. The 1945 Constitution was the result of an agreement by the founders of the Republic of Indonesia who came from various regional backgrounds and various disciplines. The 1945 Constitution can be said to have been born through a democratic mechanism with compromise from all parties.

Still quoting the opinion of Professor Yuliandri, the constitution contains basic provisions about institutions and powers that want to carry out the formal aspects or commonly called the authority of the state. Not only that, the constitution also contains basic provisions regarding power and institutions related to the existence of guarantees for material aspects or human rights.

Well, after understanding the description above, in simple terms, the meaning of the constitution can be understood as a basic law that can be used as a guideline in the implementation of national government. Next, we will discuss the meaning of the constitution according to the terms of a number of experts, as follows:

1. Understanding the Constitution According to LJ van Apeldoor

The Constitution is a basic law that includes Basic Laws such as written basic laws to unwritten basic laws or commonly referred to as conventions.

2. Understanding the Constitution According to ECS Wade

A constitution is a document that is capable of presenting the framework to the main tasks of a national government body while also determining various points in the body’s work guidelines.

3. Understanding the Constitution According to Jimly Asshidiqie

The Constitution is the Basic Law which is included in the legal hierarchy, occupies the highest position and has a fundamental nature, so that the making of various regulations under it cannot conflict with the Basic Law.

4. Meaning of the Constitution According to Miriam Budiarjo

A constitution is a charter that contains a statement about the ideals of a nation and as the basis of a nation’s organization.

5. Meaning of the Constitution According to KC, Wheare

Wheare expressed the opinion that the constitution is an entire system of governance of a region in the form of a group of various styles to form and manage the government of a country.

6. Understanding the Constitution According to Herman Heller

According to Herman Heller, the constitution can be divided into three meanings, which are as follows:

a. Sociological political constitution, which is a constitution that is a reflection of the political life of the population.
b. Juridical constitution, which is a constitution that is a unity of rules that live in society.
c. A political constitution, that is a constitution that can be embodied in written form and included in one of the manuscripts as a law.

7. Meaning of Constitution According to F. Lassalle

There are two definitions of the constitution according to F. Lasalle, among which are:

a. Juridically, the constitution is a text that contains various types of buildings and various types of government joints in a country.

b. Sociologically and politically, the constitution is a synthesis or final result of various factors that occur in a society. The constitution is an explanation of the relationship between the powers that exist in a country, such as the cabinet, parliament, political party, king, prime minister, and so on.

Based on various opinions from the experts that have been presented before, it can be concluded that the constitution has two meanings, namely in a narrow sense and in a broad sense.

First, in a narrow sense, the meaning of the constitution is that the Basic Law is a written basic law. The 1945 Constitution itself is a document that contains all the basic rules and provisions of a country’s constitutional system.

Second, in a broad sense, it can be concluded that the meaning of the constitution is a whole set of basic rules and provisions, both from the basic law that covers the written basic law to the unwritten basic law. The constitution also makes arrangements related to a government system that has been established in a country.

B. Types of Constitutions and Examples of Constitutions in Indonesia

In general, the constitution has 2 types based on its form. The two types of constitutions are written constitutions and unwritten constitutions.

Based on the Class VII Citizenship Education Module published by the Ministry of Education and Culture in 2017, it explains the 2 types of constitutions and their examples, as follows:

1. Written Constitution

The written constitution is a set of basic rules of the country, the building of the country and the constitution that govern the life of a nation within the legal federation of the country.

The following are some examples of written constitutions that have been used by the Indonesian state, among which are:

a. 1945 Constitution
b. RIS Constitution
c. Provisional Constitution
d. 1945 UUD Amendment Result

2. Unwritten Constitution

An unwritten constitution can also be called a convention. The convention itself has the meaning as a habit of the constitutional system that often exists in a country.

The following are some examples of written constitutions that have been used by the Indonesian state, among which are:

a. Decisions at the MPR are taken and decided based on deliberation by consensus.
b. The President’s speech at the DPR plenary session every August 16, 1945, and the President’s speech before the MPR held a session. The President as head of state has prepared the materials for the upcoming MPR general meeting.
c. Customs

C. Constitutional Functions

In his work, CF Strong argues that basically the principle of the function of the constitution is as something that limits the authority of action from the government. Not only that, the function of the constitution is to provide guarantees of rights to the ruled as well as formulating for the exercise of sovereign power.

1. Constitutional Functions in General

In general, the constitution has several functions, among them are:

a. The Constitution functions to provide limitations to the power of a government so that there is no government that acts arbitrarily so that the rights of citizens can be guaranteed, protected, and channelized.

b. The constitution has a function as a charter for the birth of a country

c. The Constitution has the function of being the highest source of law

d. The Constitution has a function as a tool to limit the power of a government

e. The Constitution has a function as a national identity and national symbol

f. The Constitution has a function as one of the ways to provide protection for human rights as well as a guarantee of freedom for the citizens of a country.

2. Functions of the Constitution According to Jimly Asshidiqie

Not only the opinion of CJ Strong, Jimly Asshidiqie as the head of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Indonesia from 2003 to 2008 also expressed his opinion about the constitution. According to Professor Jimly Asshidiqie there is 1 function of the constitution for a country. The following are 10 functions of the constitution that need to be known, among which are:

a. The constitution can function as a determinant and limiter of the power of a state organ
b. The constitution has a function as a regulator of power relations between state organs
c. The constitution has a function as a regulator of power relations between state organs and the people of the country
d. The constitution has a function as a giver or source of legitimacy to the power of the state or the exercise of power from the state
e. The constitution has the function of channeling or transferring the authority of the people or as the original source of power to state organs
f. The constitution has a function as a symbol of unifying efforts
g. The Constitution has a symbolic function to be a reference of national identity and greatness
h. The constitution has a symbolic function to be the center of ceremony (ceremony)
i. The constitution has a function as a means of controlling society. Both in a narrow sense only in the political field and in a broad sense that includes the social and economic fields
j The Constitution has a function as a means of engineering and reforming society. Both in a narrow sense and in a broad sense

D. Purpose of the Constitution

In addition to the functions of the constitution above, the constitution also has an important purpose to know. The following are the three objectives of the constitution in brief, among which are:

1. The Constitution aims to provide limitations as well as supervision over political power. This purpose serves to limit the power of the ruler so that he does not do actions that are detrimental to many people.

2. The Constitution aims to release control of power from self-control. It can also provide protection for human rights (HAM), so that with the existence of the constitution, every ruler and society must respect human rights and have the right to obtain protection in exercising their rights.

3. The Constitution aims to provide fixed limits for the rulers in exercising their powers. In addition to providing limitations for the ruler in exercising his authority, this also aims to provide guidelines for the administrators of the country so that the country can stand firmly.

E. Values ​​from the Constitution

After understanding the meaning, types, up to the function and purpose of the constitution. Furthermore, the following are three values ​​from the constitution, among which are:

1. Normative values ​​are a constitution that is officially accepted by a nation. For a country, the constitution cannot only apply in a legal or legal sense. However, the constitution is also clearly applicable in a society in the sense of being effective and implemented in a consistent and pure manner.

2. Nominal value is a constitution that according to law remains valid. However, the constitution has an imperfect form. The imperfect constitution can be caused by some specific articles that do not apply or not all of the articles contained in the Constitution can apply to all regions of the country.

3. Semantic value is a constitution that can only apply to the interests of the ruler. The constitution can be a tool for those in power to mobilize power, it becomes a reason for exercising political power over its citizens.

F. Conclusion

Based on the discussion about the Constitution above, it can be concluded that the logical consequence of the establishment of a state or the formation of a new state is the existence of a constitution. The Constitution becomes the most important basis of a country and therefore obtains a very crucial and important position in creating a just and civilized constitutional life of a country.

The constitution and the state is a relationship between institutions that cannot be separated from one another. The existence of a country can actually be fulfilled if it has the following four elements, namely:

1. Fulfilling the elements of sovereign government,

2. Certain Territories

3. People who live united as a nation or nation, and

4. Recognition from other countries.

Of the four elements for the establishment of a country, it turns out that it is not enough to be used as a guarantee of the implementation of the functions of the state and sovereign government. The Constitution or the Basic Law can provide guarantees to the country to become the basic law in order to regulate the constitution of a country.

The relationship between the country’s policy and the constitution can be seen in a basic idea, goals and ideals of the country that are expressed in the opening of a country’s constitution. The national policy can also be used as a guideline for the administration of the country in writing and included in the constitution of a country. The constitution itself has the function of providing limitations on the authority of government actions. Furthermore, the constitution is used to guarantee all the rights of the governed and formulate the exercise of sovereign power.

In the discussion of the doctrine of separation of powers, the constitutional court obtains the authority to make arrangements in deciding authority disputes between state institutions. The constitutional court obtaining that authority through the granting of the 1945 Constitution is a consequence of the restructuring of the country’s institutions in an effort to purify the doctrine of the separation of powers.

In this doctrine of separation of powers, the People’s Consultative Assembly or MPR is no longer a symbol of the embodiment of people’s sovereignty. That implies that every state organ or institution has an aligned position. The parallel situation, provides openness to the opportunity for state organs or institutions to dispute related to the authority sourced from the Constitution.

Meaning of Consolidation – Have Reader ever heard the term consolidation? Consolidation has several definitions depending on the field. However, in general, the notion of consolidation can be interpreted as an action or effort made to strengthen, unify and strengthen a relationship between two groups, so that the two groups have a strong union.

Then, what is the meaning of consolidation according to other fields? And what are the characteristics and effects caused by this consolidation? See the following explanation of the meaning of consolidation.

Definition of Consolidation

Consolidation can be interpreted as the merger of two or more businesses, the merger is done by establishing a new business or liquidating an old business without first liquidating.

Consolidation can also be defined as two companies that merge or dissolve, for the sake of law and instead the two companies establish a company with a new name. Although the new company, will be taken over the assets as well as the rights and obligations of the two companies that have been dissolved before.

The purpose of doing the consolidation itself, is to unite every element that has certain similarities. For example, religion, regional origin, or groups with the same purpose or mission vision.

However, this notion of consolidation is actually used in various fields, not only in the business field, for example accounting and sociology. Here are some definitions of consolidation from various fields.

• In the field of business, consolidation can be interpreted as the merger of two or more companies that become or form a new company. Where the new company, will take over all the rights and obligations of each company that has been merged.
  Consolidation in the field of business can also be interpreted as the merger and acquisition of many small companies that become several companies with a much larger scale. Consolidation in business occurs when two or more businesses join together to form a new entity with the same hope, namely to increase market share as well as profitability and profit by combining talent, expertise and industry technology.
  The meaning of consolidation in this business is different from the practical term of merger. Because companies that consolidate can create new entities. Meanwhile, a merger in business can be interpreted as the act of one company trying to absorb another company, but the other absorbed company still exists and has not been dissolved.
• While in the field of accounting, the meaning of consolidation is the merging of reports of all equity, assets, liabilities and operational accounts owned by a parent company and a subsidiary company in one form of financial report.
  The notion of consolidation in the field of accounting has the meaning of a financial report that provides a comprehensive picture. Especially regarding the financial position of parent companies and subsidiaries and not the position of independent companies.
  According to the context, the notion of consolidation in the field of accounting refers to the aggregation of financial statements from a group of companies as a form of consolidated financial statements. In general, information from parent companies and subsidiaries will be treated as if they come from the same entity.
• The definition of consolidation according to the field of sociology, is a form of strengthening community membership in a social group that has several elements, such as tribal elements, religion, social status, gender and other elements.
• In the field of technical analysis and trading, consolidation is a term that refers to the price of securities that have consolidation in a corridor and in general, consolidation can be interpreted as a form of market uncertainty.
  In the field, the term consolidation is generally used to describe the movement of the stock price, on a fairly well-defined trading level pattern. Consolidation is also considered a period of uncertainty, which will end when the price of the asset moves up or down in the trading pattern.
• In the field of technology, consolidation refers to data storage or server resources that are shared among many users and accessed by many applications.
  In technology science, the notion of consolidation is to have the purpose of making the use of computer resources more efficient and preventing a server and storage device from being underutilized to the point of consuming too much space.
  The definition of consolidation in the field of technology is divided into two, namely server consolidation and storage consolidation. The definition of server consolidation involves the reduction of the number of servers and server locations in an organization.

So, from the definition of consolidation above, consolidation can be defined as an act of combining two or more bodies, companies, groups or banks into one, thus forming a new company, group or body.

Meaning of Consolidation According to the Members

In addition to the definition of consolidation according to various fields and in general, consolidation is also defined by several experts. Here is the definition of consolidation according to experts.

Merriam Webster’s Dictionary

According to this one dictionary, the meaning of consolidation is the process of unification, whether it is unification in quality or condition. Whereas, in general, the meaning of consolidation is the unification of two or more corporations through a dissolution and the formation of a new corporation.

Features of Consolidation

In order to better understand, regarding consolidation, Reader needs to know the characteristics of consolidation. Here are the features of consolidation.

• There is a merger or merger of two or more companies, forming a new company.
• Every old company that has been dissolved, will be dissolved without going through a liquidation process.
• The new company that emerges from the amalgamation must have the status of a new legal entity.
• The plan of consolidation as well as the concept of the deed of consolidation must be approved by the GMS of each company.
• All assets and liabilities of the merged company will automatically transfer to the new company formed.
• The concept of the deed of consolidation, which has been approved by the RUPS, will then be written on the deed of consolidation that has been drawn up in front of a notary using Indonesian.
• The new company from the result of consolidation, will have the status of a legal entity with the date of publication in accordance with the decision of the Ministry of Public Health regarding companies that merge without going through the liquidation process.

Effects of Consolidation and Company Reasons for Doing It

When the company decides to consolidate, there will be effects resulting from the consolidation. In general, the effect of consolidation carried out by the company can bring positive effects, namely the quality of the company increases and the company grows more.

When knowing the effect of consolidation, of course the main reason for the company to consolidate is to benefit the company. However, there are several other reasons when companies consolidate. Here is an example from a bank that does consolidation.

• There are health problems, when a bank has been declared unhealthy by the Central Bank, then the bank will usually merge or consolidate with other banks. So the best option for the bank, of course, is to merge with another bank that is still healthy.
• There is a capitalization problem. If the capital owned by a bank or company is felt to be too small, so that it is difficult for the company or bank to expand its business, then the bank or company can merge with another bank. The purpose is for the bank or company that joins to have a much larger capital. So, it will be easier for the company or bank to expand its business.
• There is a management problem. Some companies or banks may have less professional management, so that the bank or company suffers continuous losses and is difficult to grow. This will encourage banks or companies to consolidate with other banks or companies that have more professional management.
• Technology and administration. Banks and companies that still use simple technology, often experience various problems, especially due to the development of the times. Therefore, to obtain more sophisticated technology, of course the capital required is not small. For this reason, banks and companies will choose to consolidate with parties that have advanced technology.
• The desire to dominate the market. This fifth reason, in general, is not clearly announced to outside parties, but is only known to certain parties. By consolidating, the bank or company will have an increasing number of branches and customers and make the company or bank dominate the market.

How Companies Consolidate

There are several ways that must be taken by companies that want to consolidate.

• The directors of companies that are going to merge themselves, must prepare a proposal for a consolidation plan, the proposal for the plan, must be approved by the commissioners in each company.
• The proposed consolidation plan will then be used as material to prepare the consolidation plan. The plan, compiled together by the directors of the company that will carry out the merger.
• A summary of the consolidation plan must be announced by the board of directors in two daily newspapers and will be announced to the employees in writing and at the latest two weeks before the convening of the GMS.
• The consolidation plan as well as the concept of the consolidation deed, must be approved by the RUPS of each of the merging companies. The concept of the consolidation deed that has been approved, will then be written on the consolidation deed that has been made in front of a notary using Indonesian. If it has been certified by a notary, then the consolidation deed can be used as a basis for creating a new PT establishment deed.
• The directors of the company must submit an application for confirmation of the deed of establishment of the new company to the Minister of Public Health and no later than two weeks from the date of the GMS decision.
• Menkumham will then give a confirmation sign no later than 60 days after the application is received. The company that consolidates will then be considered liquidated, starting from the date the deed of establishment of the new PT from the result of the consolidation is confirmed by the Ministry of Justice.
• Once it has been confirmed by the Minister of Justice, the deed of establishment of the new PT from the amalgamation must be entered in the company register and announced in the supplement of the Republic of Indonesia.

Then, when the company that has done the consolidation is involved in a dispute, then there are several steps that must be taken to resolve the dispute.

The first step is to make a solution by filing for mediation first. Then if mediation fails, then an agreement is made to find a solution through consolidation. If this effort is unsuccessful, it will be referred to arbitration.

Examples of Consolidation in Various Fields

As has been explained in the sense of consolidation, that consolidation can occur in various fields. Be it in the field of accounting, business, technology or even mass action. To make it clearer, here are some examples of consolidation in various fields.

1. Business consolidation

There are several companies that consolidate, some of the companies that are the result of consolidation are Bank Mandiri that consolidates with Bank Bumi Daya (BBD), Bank Dagang Negara (BDN), Bank Export Import Indonesia or Bank Exim and Bank Pembangunan Indonesia (Bapindo).

In addition to banks, there is also a SmartFren company which is a company that is the result of consolidation from PT. Mobile 8 Telecom Tbk (Mobile 8) and PT. Smart Telecom (Smart). Bakrie Telecom and PT. Sampoerna Telekomunikasi Indonesia (STI) also consolidated with several companies.

2. Consolidation of mass action

The masses are consolidating, with the aim of combining their strengths to achieve a common goal. An example of the consolidation of mass action is the demonstration that took place on 23 to 24 September 2019, namely the Corrupted Reformation demo.

That is an explanation of the meaning of consolidation accompanied by examples, characteristics, and effects of consolidation carried out by companies or banks. 

The meaning of connotation – The meaning of connotation and denotation may have made you feel confused and even often changed the meaning. In fact, connotation and denotation have very different meanings. Connotation and denotation are often used in everyday conversation. It’s just that some people may not realize that they have used a connotation word in a sentence.

Therefore, there is no harm in knowing what the connotation means. By understanding what connotation is, then you can use connotation in the right time.

In order to understand the comments and more complete explanations, below the meaning of connotation will be explained, up to an example of the application of connotation in a sentence. See a more complete explanation below:

Meaning of Connotation in KBBI

Connotation then becomes one of the types of meaning in Indonesian that is attached to a word or an expression, so it is often also known as the meaning of connotation.

The meaning of the connotation itself can actually mean being positive and it can also mean negative. However, what exactly is the meaning of connotation? If you look at the Indonesian Language Dictionary (KBBI). The meaning of connotation in KBBI is a mental link that creates a sense of value in a person when he is dealing with a word. This is one of the features found in the meaning of connotation.

In addition, connotation can also be considered as not the actual meaning. For example, “bunga desa” which means a beautiful girl in a village who is liked by many young men. Then, “long hand” which means an expression for someone who likes to steal, “right hand” which can also be interpreted as a confidant, and so on.

Connotation Meaning and Characteristics

The meaning of connotation can then also be interpreted with a figurative meaning. This means that the connotation attached to a word or expression then has a meaning that is not true. In short, there is another meaning contained in a word or expression with a connotation meaning.

After understanding the meaning of connotation, to make it easier for you to understand the meaning of connotation, the following below are the characteristics of connotation that you need to know:

1. Connotation is a figurative meaning or not a real meaning.
2. Connotation has additional meaning which is then conceptual.
3. Connotation can also have negative and positive connotations as well as neutral connotations.
4. The meaning of the connotation can then change from time to time.
5. Connotation can then have different meanings influenced by the life outlook of a certain community or based on the norms that apply in a community group.

These are some of the characteristics and connotations that you need to know. Looking at these characteristics, it can be said that the use of this connotation can be used in everyday conversation. In addition, this connotation is actually more often found in literary works.

Meaning Connotation

The meaning of connotation is an additional meaning that is then consensual and related to the value of taste. Not only that, this meaning is then a result of the values ​​and norms held by a certain society, resulting in differences in the social function of words and meanings that are almost the same. However, the meaning of the word will then change along with the changes in values ​​and norms that occur in a society. The characteristics of the meaning of connotation are:

1. Meaning Connotation Occurs If This Word Has Sense Value

As for the taste that is meant here, it can be in the form of a taste with a positive or negative taste value. If the taste is not worth it, it can also be said to have a neutral connotation.

2. The Meaning of Connotation of a Word That Can Be Different Between Community Groups

As for the meaning of this meaning, a community group that is one with another community group can have different connotations of a word or sentence. This is due to the view of life and norms found in the community.

3. The meaning of connotation can also change from time to time

For example, accidents on the toll road have claimed many lives. The meaning of the word ” eating the sacrifice ” here does not mean literally chewing or consuming, but resulting. Another example is “Mr. RT doesn’t like doing black campaigns.”

The meaning of the phrase ” black campaign ” does not mean a campaign using the color black, but means an evil or fraudulent campaign .

Another example is in ” Father and mother have eaten a lot of acid and salt of life .” Meaning: from the expression ” eating acid and salt of life ” this is not literally consuming acid and salt, but means having had good, bad and happy life experiences .

Examples of Application of Connotation in Sentences

After knowing the meaning of connotation and its meaning, it feels incomplete if we do not discuss the use of connotation in a sentence.

Because connotation means not the actual meaning, then the word, phrase, and sentence of connotation itself is often used in a literary work, one of which is a literary work of poetry.

Because, the meaning of connotation among them is the figurative meaning contained in a word or expression. Well, to help understand the meaning of the connotation as well as the example. Below is the application to a sentence:

1. A military soldier died on a battlefield while fighting armed rebels. (Gugur in this sentence means to die).
2. Pak Anas is a light-hearted and very generous figure. (Light hand has the meaning of helping).
3. The accident that happened on the red bridge has claimed many victims. (Eating a sacrifice means causing, or causing.
4. Tono became the right hand of an official in a bribery case. (The right hand has the meaning of a trusted person.
5. As a writer Pak Indra has eaten a lot of life’s acid and salt. (Eating sour salt means having a lot of experience.
6. Fadi’s house is haunted by the red man. (Dilalap jago merah has the meaning of burning fire.
7. Since the pandemic occurred, many traders have gone out of business. (Rolling the mat has the meaning of bankruptcy.
8. It’s been a long time since Mrs. Ira left her ex-husband’s house. (Lifting the leg has the meaning of moving or going out.
9. Adi is a smart child even though he lives with a kara (A kara means alone or no family).
10. Lila then became the talk of her neighbors after returning from Jakarta. (The fruit of the lips has the meaning of talking material).
11. Jane apparently inherited blue blood from her grandmother. (Blue blood has the meaning of nobility.
12. Many heroes have fallen on the battlefield. (‘Gugur’ has the meaning of passing away).
13. Because of his big head, Reno was then shunned by his friends. (‘Big head’ means arrogant.
14. The workers feel that the company they work for only makes them cash cows. (‘Sapi perah’ has the meaning of a person who is used by others in order to get a profit).
15. The office is looking for a scapegoat to be able to defend its position. (‘Scapegoat’ has the meaning of a person who is blamed).
16. Ririn is a child who is light-hearted and kind. (‘Light-hearted’ has the meaning of a diligent or helpful child.
17. Every problem should be solved with a cold heart and head. (‘Cold heart’ has the meaning of patience.
18. Pak Rizal became the right hand of the police when helping to solve the kidnapping case. (‘Right hand’ has the meaning of confidant).
19. Mutia is the golden child in her family. (‘Golden child’ has the meaning of the most loved child).
20. The instant success he got made him forget more and more about the mainland. (‘Lupa daratan’ has the meaning of pride or self-forgetfulness).
21. An ink porter was doing news coverage. (‘Kuli ink’ has the meaning of journalist.
22. Flowers are so beautiful and cute that they become rustic flowers. (Country flowers have the meaning of the most beautiful person).
23. Fadlan doesn’t want to be arrogant, even though he is sitting on a soft chair in his office. (‘soft chair’ has the meaning of a good position).
24. Toni lives with a kara. (‘sebatang kara’ means alone or without family).
25. Jono’s house was burnt down by the red man. (‘jago merah’ has the meaning of Fire).
26. Irfan is a descendant of blue blood. (‘blue blood’ means noble/honorable).
27. Anisa has become a buah bibir since she succeeded in setting up a cake shop (‘buah bibir’ has the meaning of talking to a lot of people).
28. Ahmad immediately raised his feet from the cost. (‘lift your feet’ has the meaning of moving/exiting).
29. The increase in BBM is not just a rumor. (‘rumours’ has the meaning of an issue or the truth is uncertain).
30. It turns out that he is a kakap class thief who has repented (‘kakap class’ has the meaning of great or powerful)
31. Didin already knows Budi’s cleverness. (‘akal bulus’ means cunning or trickster)
32. Dian could have worked in the office because she had insiders. (‘insider’ has the meaning of relatives or authorized acquaintances).
33. Rossi is very good at riding his iron horse. (‘iron horse’ has the meaning of racing motor).
34. The merchants have gone out of business. (‘bankruptcy’ has the meaning of bankruptcy)
35. Benny is a person who is very good at tongue fighting. (‘bersilat tongue’ means good at talking or good at finding excuses.

Closing

Thus the discussion about the meaning of connotation along with examples of its application in a sentence. After reading this article to the end, hopefully you will become easier in using connotation sentences, especially in creating literary works.

Definition of Conflict – In our daily life, of course we will never be free from what is called conflict. This happens because humans themselves are social creatures who will always interact with each other. Conflict here is a social process where one party will try to get rid of the other party by destroying it.

The problem could happen between individuals with individuals, individuals with a group, or groups with other groups. Generally, conflict can occur because of differences in an interaction that causes opposition. In essence, the conflict will not only have a negative impact, but sometimes it will also bring a positive impact. Well, in order not to be confused, in this article we will discuss in more depth the meaning of conflict and some causes and examples in everyday life. What do you think? Let’s see the discussion below.

What Is Conflict?

Before discussing conflict in more depth, let’s first discuss the meaning of conflict. Do any of you already know what conflict is? So, etymologically, the word conflict comes from the Latin “con” and “figere”. Where the word “con” has the meaning of together, while “figere” has the meaning of hitting. In KBBI, the entry “conflict” is interpreted as a quarrel, dispute, and opposition. So that the city can conclude that conflict is a condition when there are two or more views, beliefs, desires, interests, different needs, values, inconsistencies, opposites, and not in line.

In Sociology material that discusses conflict, the word is more interpreted as a social process that occurs between two people or groups that try to get rid of each other by making someone or another group helpless or even by destroying another person or group.

Generally, conflicts will arise from differences in everyday life such as differences in culture, physicality, interests, values, needs, emotions, and behavioral patterns between individuals and groups in society. These differences can culminate into a social conflict when the social system of the community cannot accommodate the differences that exist within the community itself.

As usually happens around us, conflict cannot be avoided from the dynamics of social life. In the conflict theory, the condition of a plural society will indeed lead to an imbalance in the distribution of power or authority. So that there will always be social groups that compete with each other in seizing influence in a society. From the existence of the competition, the most powerful group will emerge over the other groups. Usually, the group that feels the most powerful is the elite group. So that he can make a rule that defends the interests of his own group.

The rules made by the powerful group can be in the form of laws that bind other social groups to remain obedient. The competition that occurs between two or more groups is what will later cause social conflict in society.

Definition of Conflict According to Experts

So that you can better understand the material of the conflict. The following are some definitions of conflict according to experts:

a. Hello Liliweri

Conflict is a form of natural opposition that originates from individuals or groups because those involved have different beliefs, attitudes, needs, and values.

b. De Moor

In a social system, it can be said that there is conflict if the inhabitants of the system allow themselves or their groups to be guided by opposing goals or values ​​and this happens on a large scale.

c. Dean G. Pruitt and Jeffrey Z. Rubin

The term “conflict” in its original language means a fight, war, and struggle in the form of physical confrontation between several parties.

d. Lewis A. Coser

Conflict is a struggle about values ​​or claims over status, power, aimed at neutralizing, injuring, and eliminating the opponent.

e. MZ Lawang

Conflict is a form of struggle to gain status, value, and even power when the goal of the conflicting parties is not only to gain profit, but also to subjugate their rivals.

f. Robert MZ Lawang

Conflict is a struggle to obtain rare things such as status, value, power, etc. The purpose of the conflict is not only to win, but also to subjugate the competitor or opponent.

g. Soerjono Soekanto

Conflict as one of the social processes of individuals per individual or group of people who try to meet their needs by opposing the opponent accompanied by violence or threats.

Factors Causing Conflict

Below are some factors that cause conflict, among others:

1. Individual differences

The individual differences in question include differences in feelings and attitudes. Where every human being is a unique individual. This means that each person has a stance and feelings that are different from each other. The difference in stance and feeling is still a matter or a real area that has become one of the factors that cause social conflict. Because, in going through a social relationship, a person is not always in line with the group. For example, when there is a music stage in a residential area, of course everyone’s feelings will be different. There are those who feel disturbed by the noise, but there are also those who feel entertained.

2. Differences in Cultural Background Create Different Individuals

Some people may be influenced by the group’s thinking and stance. Those different thoughts and positions can eventually trigger conflict.

3. Differences in Interest Between Individuals and Groups

Everyone must have different feelings, attitudes or cultural backgrounds. Therefore, at the same time, each person or group has different interests. Sometimes, people do similar things, but have different goals.

For example, related to differences in interests in the utilization of forests. Where the community leaders consider the forest as cultural wealth that is part of their culture. So that its sustainability must be maintained and cannot be cut down indiscriminately. As for the farmers, they actually choose to cut down trees because they consider the trees to be an obstacle for them in making gardens and farms.

For timber operators, they cut down trees and then export them to earn money and create jobs. As for environmentalists, forests are part of the environment that must be preserved. From here we can see that there are differences in interests between one group and another. Until that will bring social conflict in the community.

3. Express and Sudden Value Changes in the Population

Change is something that should happen. But if the change takes place quickly and suddenly, then the change can trigger social conflict. For example, in rural communities that experience a process of industrialization that is quite sudden, then that will certainly give rise to social conflict. Because, the old values ​​that already exist in the traditional society which generally has an agricultural pattern suddenly changed into the values ​​of the industrial society.

Where the values ​​that have changed are among others the value of mutual aid that has changed into the value of a work contract with a salary that is adjusted based on the type of their job. Then the kinship relationship changes into a structural relationship arranged in a formal organization of the company. The changes that occur suddenly, will certainly create a shock in the social process in the community. There will even be an effort to reject the form of change, because it is judged to disrupt the order of life that already existed before.

Types of Conflict

The following are some types of conflicts that we commonly find in social life.

1. Personal Conflict

The first type of conflict is personal conflict. Where personal conflict is one type of conflict that occurs between individuals and individuals or with community groups. One of the causes of personal conflict is due to differences in the way of looking between individuals related to similar issues. This type of conflict very often occurs in friendships, families, the world of work, and so on. One example of personal conflict is when a family has an argument about the division of inheritance rights.

2. Religious Conflict

The next type of conflict is religious conflict. Religious conflict is a conflict that occurs between groups that have different religions and beliefs. The majority of society considers that religion as one of the guidelines and also guidelines for life that must be followed absolutely. So that anything that is different and not in accordance with the religion they follow, will be considered as a problem and that will trigger a conflict.

An example of a religious conflict is the conflict that occurred in Poso. Where the conflict between the two religions has occurred for many years. The conflict occurred because Poso at that time was filled with Muslim residents. However, as time went on, many people who believed in Christianity entered the Poso region and became dominant. But in the end, the conflict can be resolved through mediation.

3. Racial Conflict

Racial conflict is a type of conflict that occurs between different races. Where racial conflict will occur when each race feels superior and prioritizes the interests of its own group. For an example of racial conflict, such as the conflict between white youth and black youth. Surely that is very unsettling and causes division. This type of racial conflict often occurs in Indonesia.

4. Conflict Between Social Classes

The next type of conflict is conflict between social classes. Where this type of conflict is known as vertical conflict, which can appear because of a difference in interests between classes in society. An example of this type of conflict is a demonstration that occurs between employees and the company, where the employees demand a salary increase.

5. Social Conflict

The existence of class groups in a society will have the potential to trigger conflict. Struggle and also efforts to defend the status and role in the community often lead to conflict. An example of this one conflict is between the rich group and the poor group who fight each other for power in the political seat.

6. Political Conflict

Political conflict is one type of conflict that occurs due to differences of opinion in political life. The conflict occurs because each group wants to be in power in a government system. Examples of this conflict are the PKI rebellion in Madiun, the 30S/PKI Rebellion, and the DI/TII rebellion. In fact, there are still many political conflicts that occur in the run-up to the election.

7. International conflict

International conflict is a type of conflict that involves various groups of countries due to differences in the interests of each country. One of the examples of international conflict is between North Korea and South Korea, ISIS, as well as other countries that wage war.

8. Causes of Conflict

Conflict can occur because of a cause. So that will cause a conflict. There are several causes of conflict as a whole including:

-Individual differences

The first cause of conflict is due to individual differences and different feelings. Where there is usually a difference of feeling and stance towards a real thing or environment. This can be one of the causes of social conflict.

– Differences in interests between individuals or groups

The next cause of conflict is the difference in interests between individuals and a group. This happens because not everyone has the same interests.

-Differences in cultural background

Some people will be influenced by the ownership pattern and also the stance of the group. Those different thoughts and positions will eventually trigger differences that can cause a conflict.

– Rapid and sudden value changes in society

As explained above, sudden changes in a society have the potential to trigger conflict. Because, it happened because of the unpreparedness of society in facing a drastic change.

How to Overcome Conflict

Below are some ways you can do to overcome a conflict.

1. Competition

Conflict resolution in the form of competition is usually known as win-lose orientation. Where this settlement process describes one party sacrificing the other party.

2. Accommodation

The resolution of this type of conflict will depict a mirror image competition that will give the entire solution to the other party without any effort to fight for its own goals. The process is commonly known as reconciliation tactics.

3. Sharing

In this type of conflict resolution process, one party will give and the other party will receive something. Both have a moderate mind, incomplete, but satisfactory.

4. Collaboration

This is one form of conflict resolution that can satisfy both parties. The effort is a problem-solving approach that requires integration from both sides.

5. Avoidance

The resolution of this conflict usually involves the indifference of the two groups concerned. The condition reflects the withdrawal of the interests of other groups.

Examples of Conflict

An example of a conflict that we often find in everyday life is the conflict about children who drop out of school because they have to help their parents work. This condition should be one of the government’s concerns because children who are of compulsory school age need to complete their education until the end. . Based on a survey of children aged 10 to 17 who are already working, as reported by the Central Statistics Agency in 2006.

It is recorded that 2.8 million children have become workers. From the results of the study, it was found that children aged 9 to 15 years are already involved in various types of work. Where it has resulted in their mental, emotional, and physical health. At first maybe they only intended to help his parents. But as time goes by, they then get stuck being a permanent employee.

Eventually they often skip school and decide to quit school. For poor children, School Operational Assistance or BOS alone is not enough. The government and schools should consider giving additional scholarships to buy uniforms and stationery. So that children who are less able are not burdened with the cost of education.

Definition of Conduction – In physics or more specifically in the field of electricity, the term conduction is one of the words that is heard quite often. In general, conduction can be understood as a process of heat energy transmission. Conduction can also be interpreted as a process that we unconsciously always find in everyday life.

For example, when a person is walking barefoot on asphalt that is hot enough, the conduction process from the asphalt to the feet will automatically occur. This will make the person’s feet feel hot like asphalt.

Well, in this article, we will discuss in depth the meaning of conduction. Not only that, it will also be discussed about the type of conduction, the characteristics of conduction, to various examples of conduction that we can find in our daily activities.

A. Definition of Conduction

The concept of conduction is a process of heat transfer that occurs in a substance without being accompanied by the transfer of some particles from the substance. Conduction itself usually occurs in solids, especially solids that have the properties of conductors. A conductor is known to be an object capable of transmitting heat, electric current, and even sound.

In the concept of conduction, the transfer of this heat can be affected by several things, starting from the type of object, the cross-sectional area of ​​the conducting substance, to the difference in temperature at the end of each object. Not only that, the length of the intermediate substance that heat is used to propagate can also affect the transfer

In addition to conduction, heat can also transfer in two other ways, namely convection and radiation. Convection or flow is the process of heat transfer through a flow in which the medium moves. When a particle or substance moves and causes heat to propagate, it can be confirmed that convection will occur.

Convection usually occurs in liquids and gases such as air or wind. For example, like the movement of water up and down when heated. Cold water will automatically go down, while hot water will easily move up.

Then, radiation or radiation is the transfer of heat or heat without an intermediate substance. Radiation itself can generally move accompanied by light or through the form of electromagnetic wave propagation.

Some examples of heat transfer without intermediate substances are, for example, radiation or heat from the sun to the earth through a vacuum. This process is unconsciously very useful for everyday human activities, such as drying clothes. Not only for humans, radiation also has an influence on the process of plant photosynthesis, there are land and sea winds, and so on.

B. Types of Conduction

After knowing the meaning of conduction, here are some types of conduction that you should know, among others:

1. Tunak Conduction

The first type of conduction is passive conduction. This type of conduction can be understood as a stable condition where there is no heat absorption or emission at any cross section. The left and right side of the face will both maintain their respective temperatures. This will ultimately result in a constant temperature gradient throughout the plate because the amount of heat that flows is the same in each section.

2. Temporary Conduction

The second type of conduction is transient conduction. In this temporary conduction, the temperature can change at certain objects and times. This mode depends on the temperature to be the main point. Temporary conduction itself usually occurs when there is a known temperature change on the outside or inside the object.

3. Electrical Conduction

The third type of conduction is electrical conduction. Electrical conduction can be understood as an event that occurs when there is an electric current passing through it. Electrical conduction itself is very dependent on the physical structure to how an electron is bound to the material.

4. Voice Conduction

The fourth type of conduction is voice conduction. Sound conduction is one type of conduction capable of producing a vibration at the same time causing various atoms to vibrate through matter. It’s just that, in sound conduction there are isolators whose individual atoms don’t vibrate easily, which are like sonic isolators. This will basically make sound conduction function as a sound dampener.

C. Conduction Characteristics

Conduction as we know ourselves is a transfer of heat through a solid substance that does not experience displacement. In the conduction itself there are several characteristics that can be used to distinguish it from the other two types.

Well, here are some conduction characteristics that you need to pay attention to, including:

• Requires intermediate substances (medium)
• Must be in contact.
• Occurs in solids.
• Heat transfer is not followed by intermediate substances.

In heat transfer by conduction, a formula can be used to calculate, among others as follows:

Q/t = H = k (Δt)/l

Description:

H = Heat speed that propagates per unit time (J/s)
K = thermal conductivity of the material (W/mK)
A = Cross-sectional area (m2)
Δt = temperature change (T2 – T1) (K)
L = length of the conveyor (m)

D. Examples of Conduction

After understanding the meaning of conduction as well as the difference with other types of heat transfer. Below will be presented some examples of conduction quite often that you encounter in everyday life, among which are:

1. Conduction can occur when someone is ironing. When you are ironing clothes, you need the heat of the iron to make the job easier. The heat from the iron will cause heat transfer when it comes into contact with the clothes. However, not only clothes, all things that have conductive properties can be heat transfer, including human skin.

2. Conduction can occur when someone stirs a hot drink. If you dip a spoon with stainless steel material into a glass filled with hot tea water, then the tip of the spoon that is not dipped will also experience heat transfer with a hot or warm feeling. This can happen due to the transfer of heat flow from the original high temperature part to the low temperature part.

In addition to the two illustrations above, there are some simple examples that you often experience in your daily activities, including:

• Hands blistered when holding a hot wok.
• When cooking, the tip of the spatula will feel hot even though it is not in direct contact with the flame.
• When the hot iron is rubbed against the shirt, then the shirt will be neat and warm.
• When hugging a person who has a hotter temperature, the body will feel warmer.
• The old exhaust gets hot when the engine is turned on.
• A metal spoon that is used to stir hot tea, the end of the spoon that is held becomes hot because the other end is in direct contact with the tea.
• A cup that feels hot when filled with hot water.
• A plate that feels hot when used to put hot food.
• Heat food using a wok.
• The heated butter becomes melted because it absorbs the heat sent through the wok.
• Ironing clothes. Conduction occurs on the metal-based iron surface.
• The lid of the pot becomes hot when used to cover the boiling water.

The meaning of conduction, characteristics, and examples – In the science of physics and electricity, the term corruption is one of the words that we often encounter in our daily lives. Usually conduction is known as a heat energy transmission process. Where this conduction itself is a process that often occurs in everyday human activities without realizing it.

With one of them, when a person walks barefoot on very hot asphalt, the conduction process from the asphalt to the feet will automatically occur. In order to know a more complete understanding of conduction, here is an explanation related to the meaning of conduction, the characteristics of conduction, examples of conduction and types of conduction.

Definition of Conduction

Based on the Indonesian Dictionary (KBBI), conduction is a transfer from one part of an object to another or from one object to another without the transfer of particles or substances.

In some studies, this heat energy transfer itself can be categorized into several types of transfer methods. Heat can travel from one part to another through stationary substances or objects.

In addition, heat can also carry particles of flowing substances. At that moment, the heat energy is transferred through the beam.

Heat transfer by conduction can usually occur in solid substances, such as iron, metal, and copper. A substance that can conduct heat well is called a conductor, meanwhile, a substance that is difficult to conduct heat is called an insulator.

Conduction is the only mechanism where heat is able to flow in a solid substance that is not able to transmit light.

Conduction Characteristics

Conduction is the transfer of heat that has several distinguishing characteristics with the other two types. Here have been presented the characteristics of conduction.

• Requires an intermediate substance or medium.
• Mandatory to touch each other.
• Generally, occurs in solids.
• Heat transfer is not followed by intermediate substances.
• Heat transfer by conduction can be calculated using the formula:
  Q/t = H = k (Δt)/l

Explanation:
H = Heat speed that propagates per unit time (J/s)
K = Thermal conductivity of material (W/mK)
A = Cross-sectional area (m2)
Δt = Temperature change (T2 – T1) (K)
L = Conductor length ( m)

The Process of Heat Transfer by Conduction

You can understand heat transfer by conduction at the atomic level, where particles physically transfer heat energy when they come into physical contact with other particles.

This conduction is similar to the explanation of heat by the kinetic theory of gases, although the transfer of heat in gases and liquids is generally said to be convection.

However, the rate of heat transfer from time to time is said to be conduction current and this is determined by the thermal conductivity of the material, and the amount that shows the ease with which heat is transmitted in the material.

Example Conduction

So that you can know more clearly, the following is an example of conduction taken from Arif Cerdas Book for Elementary School Class 5.

• Hands blistered when holding a hot wok.
• When cooking, the spatula will feel hot.
• When the hot iron is rubbed on the shirt, then the shirt will become more neat and warm.
• When you hug someone who has a hotter temperature, the body will feel warmer.
• The melting of butter when placed on a fiery wok that is being heated.
• Exhaust that gets hot over time when the motor is turned on.

Types of Conduction

Conduction is divided into various types. Generally, conduction in physics is described as having 3 (three) types. Here are the types of conduction, including:

Conduction On One Dimensional Walls

Conduction on a flat wall that can be seen as conduction or this dimension never actually exists, but conduction that occurs on a wall that is relatively thin and wide enough and all four sides are well insulated.

Solid Conduction On Flat Walls

This type of conduction generally has a series electrical arrangement in which there is a large, strong current. Also, generally conduction has a conductor with a length that does not have branching.

Conduction On Parallel Walls

The next type of conduction occurs because heat transfer is on parallel and flat walls. The situation, will make there is no heat transfer in the transverse direction between the walls.

Meanwhile, in physics, the word conduction is described with 3 (three) types of behavior defined by the type of energy transferred, including:

Heat Conduction or Thermal Conduction

Heat conduction or thermal conduction is the transfer of energy from a warmer substance to a colder substance through direct contact. For example, someone who is touching the handle of a hot metal pan.

Electrical Conduction

Electrical conduction is the transfer of electrically charged particles through media. For example electricity that travels through electrical cables in your home.

Sound Conduction or Acoustic Conduction

Sound conduction or acoustic conduction is the transfer of sound waves through media. For example, the vibration from loud music passing through the wall.

Heat transfer is usually categorized into several mechanisms.

Heat Conduction

Heat conduction or commonly known as diffusion occurs inside objects or between two objects that are in contact. This is a direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy from particles that cross the boundary between two systems. When an object is at a different temperature from other objects or other environments.

Heat Convection

Heat convection depends on the movement of mass from one region of space to another. Convection occurs when the flow of fluid or gas or liquid carries heat together with the flow of matter in the fluid.

Thermal Radiation

Thermal radiation is the transfer of heat by an electromagnetic radiation. For example, sunlight, without the need for matter to be present in the space between things.

Differences in Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

Heat and heat are energy that moves from a high temperature to a low temperature. Heat transfer can occur by conduction, convection, and radiation. Here are the differences between conduction, convection, and radiation.

Conduction is the transfer of heat through a solid substance that is not followed by displacement . This means that the transfer of heat in a substance is not accompanied by the transfer of its particles.

Convection is the transfer of heat through flow followed by the transfer of intermediate substances . When particles move, it will cause heat to propagate until convection occurs. Convection heat transfer occurs in liquids and gases.

Radiation is the transfer of heat without an intermediate substance . This radiative heat transfer is generally accompanied by light.