Category: Science

What are Atoms? –  Hello Sinaumed’s friends, When you were in 10th grade high school, you will get information about atomic theory, such as understanding, types and other aspects related to atomic theory and models. also understand the development of atomic theory in this world.

Especially for those of you who are majoring in chemistry, you will find courses that explain atomic matter. Thus, not all students will be able to re-learn this material. For those of you who later decide to become lecturers or teachers, there is the possibility of learning information about atoms.

Specifically used as a reference in the preparation of materials or teaching materials. Because if you only rely on memory, compiling teaching materials is not enough. However, it must also be supported by relevant and qualified sources. Because it could be a lot of science or material theory of atoms that have been developed.

Basically every object in this world must have a very small part, so if that small part is divided again, there will be even smaller parts. Well, this smallest fraction is called an atom.

The atom itself can be considered as the smallest element of all existing matter. In a matter of atoms can be explained like this. Especially in the scientific world, the atom is experiencing development. Every development in the atom is the result of an evaluation of the previous atomic theory.

Want a more complete explanation about the meaning of atoms and their history and want to know the atomic components? Don’t hesitate anymore, let’s read this article right away, then you will know the meaning and history and components of the atom.

Understanding Atoms

The atom is a basic unit of matter consisting of an atomic nucleus and a cloud of negatively charged electrons that surrounds it. The atomic nucleus consists of positively charged protons and neutrally charged neutrons (except in the hydrogen-1 atomic nucleus, which has no neutrons). The electrons in an atom are bound in the atomic nucleus by electromagnetic forces.

A collection of such atoms can also bond with each other and form a molecule. Atoms containing the same number of protons and electrons are neutral, while those containing an asynchronous number of protons and electrons are either positive or negative and are claimed to be ions. Atoms are grouped according to the number of protons and neutrons that are still present in the atomic nucleus. The number of protons in an atom determines the chemical element of that atom and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of that element.

The Greek word for an atom is (ἄτομος/átomos, α-τεμνω) , which means something that cannot be cut or divided. The concept of the atom as an indivisible component was first proposed by Indian & Greek philosophers. In the 17th and 18th centuries, chemists laid down the foundations of this idea using and demonstrating that specific substances could not be further broken down using chemical methods.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, physicists discovered the structure and subatomic components within the atom, demonstrating that the ‘atom’ was indivisible. The principles of quantum mechanics were used by physicists who succeeded in modeling the atom.

In everyday observations, it is relatively believed that the atom is a very small object that has a proportionally small mass. Atoms can only be monitored using specific tools such as an atomic force microscope. Over 99.9% of an atom’s mass is centered in the atomic nucleus, with protons and neutrons of nearly the same mass. Every element has at least one isotope with an unstable nucleus, which can undergo radioactive decay.

This can cause transmutation, which changes the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Electrons bound in atoms contain a number of energy levels, or orbitals, that are stable and can undergo transitions between these levels and absorb or emit photons synchronously with the energy disparity between the levels. The electrons in an atom determine the chemical properties of an element, and influence the magnetic properties of that atom.

Understanding Atom According to Experts

1. John Dalton

Atoms are the smallest particles of a substance that cannot be broken down into smaller particles by normal chemical reactions.

2. Leucippus and Democritus

Atom is the smallest part of matter that cannot be divided into certain parts. Atoms are the building blocks of all matter in this world.

3.Joseph John Thomson

Atoms are positively charged balls surrounded by electrons like raisins.

4. Ernest Rutherford

Atoms are particles consisting of neutrons and protons and surrounded by electrons.

Whereas in the Big Indonesian Dictionary (KBBI), atom means the smallest chemical element (after the nucleus) that can stand alone and combine with other elements. Not only that, from the four definitions of atoms put forward, atoms can be understood as the smallest and inseparable particles.

“The smallest and indivisible particle” , this thought comes from Democritus. He was the first scientist to reveal it. Atomic thoughts or opinions are not scientific research, but only Democritus thoughts.

From the thoughts of Democritus, many scientists are challenged to do research on atoms. In fact, until now, atomic research is still ongoing.

In general, atoms are circular in shape with diameters ranging from 6 to 30 mm. The electromagnetic force that exists in atoms can bind particles such as protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic bonds with protons, neutrons, and electrons make these atoms and particles form molecules. So far, atoms have not been seen with various technological tools.

The atomic nucleus is often called the daughter nucleus. An atom has a nucleus surrounded by electrons, protons and neutrons. Electrons carry a negative charge. On the other hand, the proton is positive. After having a positive and negative charge, a neutron can be said to have a charge that is not useful to anyone, simply that a neutron is neutral.

A Brief History of the Atom

The idea that matter is made up of indivisible units has been around for a millennium. However, these thoughts remain abstract and philosophical, not based on empirical observations and experiences.

Philosophically, descriptions of the nature of the atom vary according to culture and philosophical school, and often contain spiritual elements. However, the basic idea of ​​the atom was accepted by scientists thousands of years ago because it could elegantly explain new discoveries in chemistry.

The first reference to the concept of the atom comes from ancient India in 800 BC, it is described in Jainist philosophical texts such as this and the like. The Nyaya and Vaisesika schools developed theories explaining how atoms combine to form more complex objects. A century later, Leucippos referred to the atom in the West, which was later codified by his student Democritus

Around 450 BC, Democritus coined the term átomos (Greek: ἄτομος) , meaning “uncut” or “undividable”. Democritus’ atomic theory was not an attempt to describe physical phenomena in detail, but a philosophy that attempted to provide answers to the changes that occurred in nature.

Similar philosophy also exists in India, however, modern science has decided to use the term “atom” coined by Democritus. Democritus also said that the atoms in water are so slippery that water can flow everywhere while the atoms in salt are covered with sharp thorns which give a salty taste to the tongue.

Further advances in the understanding of atoms began with developments in chemistry. In 1661, Robert Boyle published The Skeptical Chymist , who argued that the world’s matter was composed of various combinations of “corpuscles”, that is, different atoms.

This contrasts with the classical view that matter is composed of the elements air, earth, fire and water. In 1789, the term element or element was defined by Antoine Lavoisier, a French aristocrat and researcher, as a basic substance that cannot be divided by chemical methods.

Aristotle said that there are 4 basic elements in the earth and when they are all combined they will form the compounds we see. At that time his student asked: “Can we make gold if we combine all the basic elements earlier?” Aristotle answered “Yes” .

It made scientists wonder where it was 200 years later. In 1669, German chemist Hennig Brand distilled 60 buckets of urine because he thought there was real gold in it (because urine is golden yellow) and as a result his chemical apparatus glowed in the dark.

He named him Phosphorus (Phosphorus) after the Greek word “Phosphoros” which means evening star. He was the first person in the era of AD, which was previously the discovery of arsenic 300 BC.

In 1803, John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in spherical and fixed proportions, and why some gases are more soluble in water than others. . He proposed that each element contains a single, unique atom, and these atoms can then combine to form chemical compounds.

This particle theory was confirmed in 1827, when the botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to observe dust floating on water and found that it moved randomly.

This phenomenon is known as “Brownian movement”. In 1877 J Desaulx proposed that this phenomenon was caused by the thermal motion of water molecules, and in 1905 Albert Einstein carried out a mathematical analysis of this motion. French physicist Jean Perrin later used Einstein’s work to experimentally determine the mass and size of an atom, which would become the final verification of Dalton’s atomic theory.

Based on his work on cathode rays, JJ Thomson in 1897 discovered the electron and its subatomic properties. This destroys the concept of the atom as an indivisible unit. Thomson believed that electrons were evenly distributed throughout the atom and that the charges were balanced by the presence of a sea of ​​positive charge (the plum pudding model).

Atomic Components

1. Subatomic Particles

Although originally the term atom meant a particle that could not be chopped up or further reduced into smaller particles, in modern scientific terminology, atoms are composed of a large number of subatomic particles. The particles that make up the atom are electrons, protons and neutrons. But hydrogen-1 has no neutrons. The same is true for the positive hydrogen ion H+.

Of these subatomic particles, the electron is the lightest, has a mass of 9.11 × 10−31 kg and has a negative charge. The size of the electron is so small that there is no measuring technique that can be used to measure its size. The proton has a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron (1.6726 × 10−27 kg). Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass 1,839 times that of electrons or (1.6929 × 10−27 kg).

In the standard example of physics, both protons and neutrons are composed of elementary particles called quarks. Quarks belong to the class of fermion particles which are one of two basic building blocks (the other being leptons). There are six types of quarks and each has a fractional electric charge of +2/3 or −1/3. Protons are made up of two up and one down quarks, while neutrons are made up of one up and 2 down quarks.

This difference in the composition of the quarks affects the mass and charge disparity between the two particles. The quarks are held together by a powerful nuclear force mediated by the gluons. Gluons are members of the benchmark bosons which are mediators of physical forces.

2. Atomic Nucleus

The atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons bound together at the center of the atom. Collectively, these protons and neutrons are called nucleons (particles that make up the nucleus). The diameter of the atomic nucleus varies from 10−15 to 10−14 m. The approximate radius of the nucleus is 1.07 fm, where A is the number of nucleons.

This is very small compared to the atomic radius. The nucleons are held together by a potential gravitational force called the strong residual force. At distances less than 2.5 fm, these forces are stronger than the electrostatic forces that cause the protons to repel each other.

Atoms of the same chemical element have the same number of protons, which is called the atomic number. The nucleus of an atom with a specific atomic number, specific mass number, and half-life is called a nucleotide. An element can have a varying number of neutrons. These variations are called isotopes.

Isotopes are elements with the same mass number but different atomic numbers. Isotopes of elements with the same number of electrons but different atomic numbers and masses. The number of protons and neutrons in an atom will determine the atomic nuclide, while the number of neutrons relative to the number of protons will determine the stability of the atomic nucleus, with isotopes of a particular element undergoing radioactive decay.

Neutrons and protons are two different types of fermions. The Pauli exclusion principle prohibits the existence of identical fermions (such as many protons) occupying the same quantum physical state at the same time.

Therefore, each proton in the atomic nucleus must occupy a different quantum state with its own energy level. The Pauli principle also applies to neutrons. This prohibition does not apply to protons and neutrons which have the same quantum state.

For atoms with low atomic numbers, atomic nuclei with more protons than neutrons tend to fall to a lower energy level through radioactive decay, leading to an equilibrium of protons and neutrons. Therefore, an atom with a balanced number of protons and neutrons is more stable and less likely to decay.

However, as the number of atoms increases, the repulsion between protons causes the atomic nucleus to require a higher proportion of neutrons to maintain its stability. In the heaviest nuclei, the neutron/proton ratio needed to maintain stability increases to 1.5.

3. Electron Cloud

Electrons in an atom are attracted by protons in the atomic nucleus through electromagnetic forces. This force holds the electrons in the wells of the electrostatic potential around the nucleus. This means that an external force is required for electrons to escape from atoms. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater the force of attraction, as a result, electrons that are close to the center of the potential well require greater energy to escape.

Electrons, like other particles, have properties such as particles as well as waves (wave-particle dualism). The electron cloud is a region in the potential well where each electron makes a homogeneous 3-dimensional stationary wave (i.e. a wave that is not moving relative to the nucleus).

This behavior is influenced by the atomic orbital, which is a mathematical function that calculates the probability that an electron will be in a particular location when its position is measured. There will only be a specific set of orbitals around the core, as other wave patterns will rapidly decay to more stable forms.

Each atomic orbital corresponds to a specific electron energy level. Electrons can change their state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon. As well as being able to rise to a higher energy level, an electron can also descend to a lower energy state by radiating the excess energy into a photon.

The energy required to remove or add an electron (electron binding energy) is less than the binding energy for nucleons. For example, it takes only 13.6 eV to remove an electron from a hydrogen atom. Compare that to the 2.3 MeV required to split a deuterium nucleus.

Atoms are electrically neutral because they have the same number of protons and electrons. Atoms that lack or gain electrons are claimed to be ions. Electrons that are located outside of the nucleus can be transferred or shared with other nearby atoms. In this way, atoms can bond together to create molecules.

 Astronomical location of the continent of Australia – Hello friends , Sinaumed’s , did you know? Australia is the smallest continent among the other five continents, you know. The Australian continent consists of only one country. The only country on the continent which is located in the southern part of the Indonesian territory is Australia. Apart from being a large continent, Australia also has several islands such as Cocos Island, Christmas Island, Macquarie and Tasmania.

Quoting from the IPS Module book published by the Ministry of Education and Culture (2018), the continent of Australia has a unique fauna. Most marsupial kangaroos live in this area. A small number of kangaroos may also live on the island of New Guinea, as it was once connected to the Australian mainland.

On the world map, Australia is the only continent south of Indonesia. This continent is also the only continent that consists of one country, namely Australia, whose capital is Canberra. Despite being in southern Asia, the population of this continent is mostly Caucasoid and has the same origin as the population of the European continent.

The Australian continent is a “New World” country which was discovered quite late by Western explorers. The Australian continent, as noted by J. Siboro in the History of Australia (1989), attracted the attention of the VOC, which at that time was headquartered in Batavia. At the request of the VOC, experienced sailor Abel Janszoon Tasman set out from Batavia in 1642 to discover the Australian continent.

The search for land was based on Pythagoras’ theory of the balance of the earth, who believed that there was a continent at the South Pole and called it Terra Australis Incognito. This theory was also supported by Claudius Ptolemy, an astronomer and geographer from Alexandria (Egypt) who lived in the second century AD.

Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy) also believed that there were large areas of land south of the equator, which served to balance the weight of the northern part of the earth.

Abel Janszoon Tasman actually managed to find and visit several beaches on mainland Australia and New Zealand. However, he didn’t realize that the area was the land he was looking for.

That’s why he didn’t research the countries he visited. Only then, around 1688, a pirate named William Dampier, who was also a scientific explorer from England, reached mainland Australia and wrote more detailed notes about the area. After that, the puzzle of the whereabouts of Terra Australis Incognito can also be answered.

James Cook, a skilled mariner and astronomer who embarked on voyages on behalf of the British government between 1768 and 1971, was the one who made detailed maps of places on mainland Australia and New Zealand and conducted research observing indigenous peoples in areas of the Australian continent.

Astronomical Location of the Australian Continent

The astronomical location of the Australian continent is between 113º east longitude (BT) to 115º east longitude (BT) and 10º south latitude (LS) to 43º south latitude (LS).

If you look geographically, the Australian continent is located in the southern part of Indonesia. It is located alone in the southern hemisphere and has the flattest topography of any continent.

Most of the Australian continent consists of lowlands. Australia’s continental boundaries are as follows:

• Northern border: Timor Sea, Arafuru Sea and Flores Strait
• Eastern border: Pacific Ocean, Tasman Sea and Coral Sea
• Southern border: Indian Ocean
• Western border: Indian Ocean.

The area of ​​the Australian continent is approximately 8,945,000 square kilometers. The continental area is about 3,200 km wide and 3,700 km long.

Australian Continental Climate

Australia’s climate zones can be grouped according to a number of form factors, including latitude and wind factors. Based on latitude, Australia has a tropical climate and a temperate climate. Due to the influence of winds, Australia has its own climate zones which are as follows:

1) Monsoon climate, the climate that occurs in the summer months, the prevailing wind is the northwestern wind that crosses the ocean bringing rain to northern Australia.

2) Desert climate, this climate affects the regions of Western Australia and Central Australia. The average rainfall is less than 250 mm per year. The temperature difference between summer and winter is huge. Likewise between day and night.

3) Rainy climate, this climate is in the tropics and affects the east coast of Australia. Southeastern winds that bring lots of moisture reduce rainfall in this area. The area west of the mountains receives less rain because it is a rain shadow area.

4) The climate is subtropical, this climate is located in southwest Australia on the south coast. The southeast monsoon affects this region. In winter, westerly winds bring a lot of water.

5) Temperate marine climate, This climate is experienced in the southern parts of Victoria and Tasmania. In this region a lot of rain throughout the year due to the influence of westerly winds.

As explained above, the different climate types in Australia are due to latitude, ocean currents, distance from the coast, temperature and wind conditions, and the landscape. Based on the latitude of Australia’s climate varies between north and south.

The north has a tropical climate with an average temperature of 21-27 degrees, while the south has a subtropical and temperate climate with winter temperatures around 5 degrees and an annual average temperature of 16-21 degrees. C

In the central region, the air is drier and there is desert and little rain. It rains the most in the east and north. The south of Victoria and Tasmania have a marine climate where the air is cool and it rains in winter.

The upper reaches of the Murray River and Southwest Australia have a Mediterranean climate, hot and dry in summer but cold and wet in winter.

States and Territories

Australia has 6 states and 2 continental territories. These are New South Wales (NSW), Queensland (QLD), South Australia (SA), Tasmania (TAS), Victoria (VIC), Western Australia (WA), Northern Territory (NT) and Australian Capital Territory (ACT).

In many ways, the two territories are like states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can repeal laws in any area of ​​parliament. In contrast, federal law overrides state law only in the areas defined in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution.

The State Parliament has all the legislative powers not expressly provided for in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution, such as: school affairs, state police, state courts, roads, public transport and local government.

Each mainland state and territory has its own parliament – ​​unicameral in the Northern Territory, Capital Territory and Queensland, the other states are bicameral. The state is a sovereign unit although it has certain Commonwealth Powers defined in the Constitution.

The head of state is the Prime Minister while the head of local government is the Chief Minister. The Queen is represented in each state by a governor and in the Northern Territory, an administrator. Within the Commonwealth, the Queen’s representative is the Governor-General.

In addition to the two territories listed above, Australia also has an outermost territory which is governed directly by the Federal Parliament, they are:

• Jervis Bay Territory, a naval base and port town serving the state capital on the mainland, this area was once part of New South Wales.
• Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Island.
• Ashmore and Cartier Islands
• Islands in the Coral Sea
• Heard Island and the McDonald Islands
• Australian Antarctic Territory

Norfolk Island is also technically an outer territory; however, the island was granted greater autonomy under the Norfolk Islands Act 1979 and is governed locally by its own parliament. The Queen is represented by the administrator, now held by Owen Walsh.

Australian Continental Territories

Below are various regional divisions on the Australian Continent which consist of:

Canberra

The Australian capital is located in the Australian Capital Territory, 300 km southwest of Sydney and 650 km northeast of Melbourne. Canberra is Australia’s seventh largest city and the largest inland city.

New South Wales

New South Wales is one of the states of Australia, the oldest state having been founded in 1788. The state capital is Sydney. This state is also the most populous state. As of March 2006, the population is 6,817,100.

victorian

Australia’s smallest mainland state (Tasmania not included) and the second largest Australian state with Melbourne as its capital.

Queensland

The second largest state in Australia after Western Australia is located in the northeast of the continent. This state is the third most populous state after New South Wales and Victoria. The capital is Brisbane.

South Australia

The state capital is Adelaide and has an area of ​​983,482 km². Prior to joining the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, it had the status of a province of the United Kingdom.

Western Australia

The largest state in Australia. The state covers a third of Australia’s land area and is bordered by South Australia and the Northern Territory. The capital is Perth. Western Australia is the second largest subnational unit in the world after the Sakha in Russia.

Tasmania

The state with Hobart as its capital has a land area of ​​22,357 km² and a population of 484,700 (2005). It is located 200 km south of mainland Australia and is separated by the Bass Strait. Macquarie Island is also administered by the state.

Northern Territory Australia

The Australian Federal Territory is located in the northern part of Central Australia. This region is bordered by Western Australia to the west, South Australia to the south, and Queensland to the east. To the north of the region are the Timor Sea, Arafura Sea and the Gulf of Carpentaria. The Northern Territory is the most sparsely populated with less than half the population of Tasmania. The archaeological history of the Northern Territory goes back more than 40,000 years.

Its capital and largest city is Darwin. The population is not concentrated in coastal areas but along the Stuart Highway. Other major residential areas include (in population order) Palmerston, Alice Springs, Katherine, Nhulunbuy and Tennant Creek.

Australian Continental Landscape

Broadly speaking, the Australian landscape can be divided into three parts, as follows:

West Plato

The region’s plains consist of desert, including the Great Desert in the north and the Great Victoria Desert in the south. Some of the rocks in the region are some of the oldest in the world and contain important mineral deposits such as iron ore, diamonds and nickel.

Inland Lowlands

This area includes the Great Artesian Basin, a muddy valley famous for its extensive groundwater reserves, extending from the Gulf of Carpentaria in the north to Spencer Bay and Cape Nelson on the south coast of Australia. This area includes Lake Eyre, the lowest point in Australia.

Eastern Mountain Region (The Great Dividing Range)

The mountains along the east coast are called dividing range, because these mountains form the dividing line between the waters that flow east and flow west. From the northeastern coast of Australia, in the Coral Sea, there is a coral reef (The Great Barrier Reef) that extends in the same direction as the Queensland coast.

Economic activity

The following are some of the economic activities in Australia, including:

Agriculture

In Australia, agricultural land can be classified into forest land, grazing land, cropland and other uses. Based on 1983 data, 58.4% of Australia’s land was used for pasture, 6.13% for agricultural cultivation and annual crops, 13.9% for forest land, and 21.6% for other purposes.

Although 70% of Australia’s land is dry land, with modern agricultural equipment, Australia can become the third largest wheat producer in the world. The country’s most important export product is wool. The wheat comes from the watersheds of the Murray, Darling and Swan rivers. Sugarcane is produced in Queensland; bananas in the north; Apples, grapes and vegetables are grown in the south.

Farm

There are many sheep farms in Australia. Sheep wool is used to make woolen cloth. Japan is the largest importer of Australian wool to date. There are also cattle farms in Australia whose meat is exported to America. These cattle come from Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia.

Fishery

Fishing is carried out on the coast. The main fishery products are shrimp, clams and crabs. Other products are cultivation of oysters, mussels and pearl oysters.

Mining

The gold mine is located in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia. Iron mines are located in Western Australia, South Australia and Victoria. Coal mines are located in Queensland, Western Australia and New South Wales.

Trading

Australia exports wheat, wool, aluminum, cotton and steel to Indonesia. Australia’s imports from Indonesia are petroleum, yarn and clothing.

Industry

Developing industries in Australia include industrial machinery, textiles, footwear, electronics, automobiles, ships and plastic products. Industrial centers are in the cities of Sydney and Newcastle. The agricultural industry centers are now in Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart and Perth.

tourism

• Sydney, Australia’s oldest city, is also a city of arts and a harbor with beautiful sandy beaches.
• Hobart is the second oldest city with the newest style buildings.
• Melbourne, a quintessentially British city, has a botanical garden. In addition, as a city of horse racing and golf.
• Nicknamed the City of Light, Perth is famous for its sacred garden called King Park.

Residents of the Australian Continent

According to calculations, the population of the Australian continent was around 20.1 million people in mid-2004. Australia’s population growth averages 0.6% per year and a population density of 2.5 people/km². The birth rate is 13, and the death rate is 7. Based on the calculations, the population of Australia in 2025 is estimated to be 24.2 million people. The ethnic composition found in Australia is as follows.

• White People (94.4%)
• Asian People (2.1%)
• Aboriginal people (1.1%)
• Others (2.4%)

In general, the lifestyle of Australians is similar to that of Europeans and North Americans. This symptom is a sign that most Australians are from outsiders or immigrants. Indigenous people tend to have lower levels of education, health, employment and housing.

The level of welfare of the Australian population is relatively high. In 1983 it was reported that 86% of the population owned a car, 85% had a telephone, 99.6% had a cooler and refrigerator, 91.7% had a washing machine and 98.7% had a hot water room. The Australian health service is also quite developed. One doctor treats only 552 residents.

Australia is a member of the Commonwealth and is officially under the British Empire. The rulers of England are represented by the governor general. The head of government is led by the prime minister.

Closing

Sinaumed’s friends , this is a review of the astronomical location of the Australian continent and its climate, territorial division, landscape, territory and economic activities of the Australian continent. Hopefully this review can add insight and knowledge to all of you.

Sedimentary Rock – Sedimentary rock is a rock that is formed from the compaction of sediment in the form of loose material. Sedimentary rock can also form from consolidation of sediments, as loose material, which is then transported to the site of deposition by wind, water, ice and gravity avalanches, ground movements.

Apart from being formed from sediment consolidation, sedimentary rocks can also form due to the evaporation of calcium carbonate solutions, salts, silica, and various other materials.

Sedimentary rocks are widely distributed on the earth’s surface. Although the thickness of sedimentary rocks is actually relatively thin, which is around 0 to 13 kilometers and only 2.2 kilometers will later be exposed on the continent. Sedimentary rocks are also a small covering of the earth’s crust, which is only about 5% of all these rocks are in the earth’s crust.

The process of abrasion or breaking of rock so that it settles into sedimentary rock itself can be done in several ways, namely by being deposited somewhere or through a mechanical sedimentation process, by evaporation which causes concentration and precipitation of saturated solutions or chemical sedimentation processes, biochemical processes as well as biomechanical processes (organic sedimentation processes), can also be formed primarily from magma or through volcanic sedimentation processes.

About Sedimentary Rocks

There are so many types of rocks that are around us. One type of rock is sedimentary rock. besides that there are also types of igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rock is a type of rock that is formed as a result of compaction of sediment in the form of loose material.

Sedimentary rock is rock that is formed from the deposits of various materials carried by wind or water. In addition, there is another understanding of sedimentary rocks, namely rocks that are formed due to the lithification process or the process of petrification from the results of weathering and soil erosion that have been carried away by currents and then settled.

An expert, Hutton in 1875 stated that sedimentary rocks are rocks formed by consolidation of sediments, as a loose material, which is then transported to the location of deposition by ice, water and, wind, as well as gravitational avalanches, ground movements or also landslides.

Apart from being formed from this, sedimentary rocks are formed by the evaporation of a solution of calcium carbonate, silica, salt, and also other materials. Besides that, did you know that sedimentary rocks actually have a very large number and are spread on the surface of the earth in this world?

Even according to Tucker in 1991, that 70% of the rock found on the entire surface of the earth is part of the type of sedimentary rock. But the rock is only 2% of the volume of the entire earth’s crust. This then indicates that the sedimentary rocks are spread very widely but the thickness is relatively shaped.

The earth’s crust itself is composed of various materials, not only rocks but also layers of soil, sand, and others. And these rocks are included in the elements that make up the composition of the earth’s crust.

The Process of Forming Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks before they form undergo a process of compaction and compaction from loose material or sediment until they finally become intact sedimentary rocks. This process is then also known as diagenesis.

The diagenetic process itself can occur at atmospheric pressure and temperature up to 300 degrees Celsius and also a pressure of 1-2 kilobars which lasts from the time the sediment is buried until it is finally lifted and exposed again above the surface of the earth’s atmosphere.

Based on this, there are 3 types of diagnosis.

1. Eogenic Diagnosis

This diagnosis is the initial diagnosis which then occurs in sediments below the surface of the water.

2. Mesogenic diagnosis

This diagnosis is a diagnosis that occurs when the sediment is buried deeper.

3. Telogenic diagnosis

Is a diagnosis that occurs when sedimentary rocks are then exposed back to the earth’s surface caused by uplifting and erosion.

Those are the various kinds of diagnoses that occur in sedimentary rocks. Because of the various types, the degree of cohesiveness of these sedimentary rocks then consists of various kinds and varies.

Various kinds of cohesiveness of these rocks include loose materials, which are still in the form of deposits or sediments. At this stage material consolidation then occurs in dry conditions. But this will also decompose if put in water.

Sedimentary Rock Texture

Sedimentary rocks have a variety of textures. These sedimentary rocks can also have clastic textures or non-clastic textures. However, if the rock is very compact and has recrystallized or recrystallized again, then the sedimentary rock also has a crystalline texture.

Sedimentary rocks with a crystalline texture generally occur in types of limestone and sedimentary rocks rich in silica which are very compact and hard. Thus some information about sedimentary rocks that are widely found around us.

As a rock that is widely found around us, this sedimentary rock has many uses, especially for building materials or as a medium for decorating houses and buildings today. Such is the information about sedimentary rocks that we can learn so that you can then distinguish one type of rock from other rocks.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed from igneous rocks and various other solid substances which then experience erosion in a certain place and eventually settle down to become hard. These sedimentary rocks generally also have a horizontally layered shape.

Did you know that this type of sedimentary rock can still be divided into several types? The types of sedimentary rocks will then be classified according to several categories. Many experts categorize or classify types with different numbers. Then, what are the types of these sedimentary rocks?

Sedimentary Rock According to Pettijohn (1975), O’Dunn and Sill (1986)

Pettijohn in 1975 and O’Dunn and Sill in 1986 divided sedimentary rocks based on their texture which are further divided into two major groups, namely clastic sedimentary rocks and non-clastic sedimentary rocks:

• Clastic sedimentary rock or also known as detritus, mechanical, exogenous sedimentary rock which is also a sedimentary rock consisting of clastics or rock debris that settles naturally or mechanically by its own gravity.
  This type of rock is then formed as a result of rework or rework from pre-existing rocks. The reworking process that occurs as the formation of this rock itself includes erosion, transportation, weathering, and also redeposition or re-deposition.
• Non-clastic sedimentary rock is then a type of sedimentary rock group formed as a result of the evaporation of a solution or deposition of material in that place.
  The process of rock formation can also occur by chemical, biological or organic processes, or a combination of the two, namely a combination of chemical, organic and biological. The process which is a combination of the two is also called a biochemical process.

Sedimentary Rock According to Sanders 1981 and Tucker 1991

According to Sanders in 1981 and Tucker in 1991 then classify or divide these sedimentary rocks into four categories namely:

• Sedimentary rocks detritus or clastics Chemical sedimentary rocks as sedimentary rocks that are formed through a chemical reaction, such as precipitation, evaporation, and also concentration. Examples of these chemical sedimentary rocks include salt rock, gypsum rock, stalactites, and also stalagmites.
• Organic sedimentary rock – Organic sedimentary rock, also known as sedimentary rock of bodily origin. Organic sedimentary rock itself is a sedimentary rock that comes from the remains of living bodies or is made by a living body. This type of rock group can then be broken down into two types, namely biomechanical sediments and also biochemical sediments.
  Biomechanical sediment is a deposit of the remains of living body parts that settle naturally under their own weight, for example in limestone, shell rock, numilites, and also layered limestone. While biochemical sedimentary rock is a type of rock that occurs due to the deposition of limestone and silicium elements with living rock.

Sedimentary Rock According to Graha (1987)

This type of sedimentary rock is a sedimentary rock that is generally non-classical in texture. Graha in 1987 also divided these sedimentary rocks into four groups as well, which include:

• Detritus or clastic sedimentary rock, mechanical
• Coal or organic sedimentary rock and vegetation
• siliceous Sedimentary Rock,
• Carbonate sedimentary rock

Especially for this type of rock and also for siliceous sedimentary rocks, these are clastic sedimentary rocks and non-clastic sedimentary rocks. Then if it is based on the composition of its main constituents, clastic sedimentary rock or clastic textured, then it can be further divided into three types, namely:

• Siliciclastic sedimentary rock. This type of rock is a type of clastic sedimentary rock whose main constituent minerals are feldspar and quartz.
• Then there are also volcanic clastic sedimentary rocks. Volcanic sedimentary rock is a type of sedimentary rock with the main constituent material coming from volcanic activity, such as glass, crystal, and/or lithic.
• Carbonate clastic sedimentary rock or also known as limestone This type of rock is a clastic sedimentary rock with the main constituent mineral being carbonate material (calcite).

Those are the types of clastic sedimentary rocks according to their main constituent composition.

sinaumedia Literacy – Genetic material or heredity factors are information possessed by every living cell that can be passed on to their offspring. In a sequence of DNA there are instructions that affect the nature or determine the characteristics of living things (called genes).

Meanwhile, genetic factors are a condition of the body that can occur due to the influence of our previous ancestors who belong to the family lineage. This genetic factor can actually happen to us, for example if there is our family (parents, grandparents, and so on) who have diabetes, then we are most likely to get diabetes too.

In general, all of the genetic information that determines the characteristics of living things is stored in DNA which is located in the cell nucleus. DNA becomes a fairly long strand. In order to assemble inside the cell’s tiny nucleus, DNA strands are wrapped around proteins called histone proteins.

In studying genetic information there is a branch of biology known as Genetics. The book entitled Genetics by Ramadhani Chaniago ,  Agus Hery Susanto ,  Desak Made Citrawathi & Sanusi Mulyadiharja discusses genes, DNA and chromosomes.

With histone proteins, the DNA coils form chromatin threads. When a cell divides, these chromatin threads form chromosomes. The genetic material itself consists of chromosomes, genes, DNA, and RNA. Check out the full discussion below, Sinaumed’s.

Gen

Genes are the smallest units of genetic material that control the heredity of organisms. Genes consist of DNA spun by histone proteins and arranged in a linear and orderly sequence at loci on chromosomes.

Each chromosome has hundreds of loci, so that in a cell, there are thousands of genes.

For example, it is estimated that there are 26,000 to 40,000 genes in the human body with 46 chromosomes. This also causes one individual to have thousands of traits. There are three kinds of components that make up a gene, namely cistrons (components consisting of hundreds of nucleotides), rekons (components that are smaller than a gene and consist of one or two pairs of nucleotides), mutons (components that are larger than rekons and consist of one or two nucleotides). nucleotide pairs). There are two things that determine the types of genes, namely their nature and role.

Regulatory genes that regulate structural gene expression. In eukaryotic cells, the gene consists of a transcription initiation regulatory domain, which consists of the GCCACACCC series, ATGCAAAT, GC box, CCAAT box and TATA box, then Introns, Exons, (Protein codification areas that can be transcribed overlapping or nonoverlapping. For example , in a code with three nucleotide sequences (triplet codons) AUU GCU CAG, it can be read nonoverlapping as AUU GCU CAG or overlapping as AUU UUG UGC GCU CUC CAG.

Although around 1961 it was known that amino acids are coded by codons in a nonoverlapping manner, it has been found that different proteins are transcribed by shifting overlapping codons.

In studying the genes that make up us, life, character, and one’s destiny, Sinaumed’s can read the book Genes from Siddhartha Mukherjee which discusses this matter.

Gene Expression

Gene expression is the process by which information codes contained in genes are converted into proteins that operate only within the cell.

Gene expression consists of two stages, namely:

1. Transcription, the process of making an RN copy
2. Translation, the process of synthesizing a specific polypeptide in the ribosome.

The process of transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into a polypeptide is called the central dogma. The central dogma applies to both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. However, in eukaryotes there is an additional stage that occurs in between transcription and translation which is called the pre-mRNA stage.

The pre-mRNA stage is to select the mRNA to be sent out of the nucleus for translation at the ribosome. Exons are mRNAs that will be sent out of the nucleus for translation, while introns are mRNAs that will remain in the nucleus because it is possible that the mRNA will form a protein that is not functional (useless) when translated.

The introns will then break down again to form new mRNA chains. Also know that some mistakes called mutations can occur in this process of gene expression.

Gene Scope

The concept of genetics developed from the science that discusses how traits are passed on to a wider scope, namely the study of genetic material. Broadly speaking, genetics discusses:

• The structure of the genetic material, including genes, chromosomes, DNA, RNA, plasmids, episomes, and transposable elements.
• Reproduction of genetic material, including cell reproduction, DNA replication, and others.
• Genetic material work, covering the scope of genetic material, transcription, genetic code and others.
• Changes in genetic material, including mutations and recombination
• Genetics in populations
• Genetic material engineering

Chromosome

Chromosomes are fine objects like threads that easily absorb color and function as hereditary carriers. In a diploid cell, the chromosomes appear in pairs. A pair of chromosomes is called a homologous chromosome, which is a chromosome that has the same shape, size and gene sequence.

While the chromosomes that are not their partner are called nonhomologous chromosomes. Each chromosome has parts such as the centromere, chromosome arms, matrix, chromonema, chromomeres, telomeres, and satellites. Based on the location of the centromere, there are four types of chromosomes, namely: metacentric type, submetacentric type, acrocentric type, telocentric type. The following is a picture of the chromosome and its parts. Chromosome Heredity – Capture1 Well, Quipperian, in humans, the number of chromosomes in a diploid cell is 46 pieces or 23 pairs.

The chromosomes consist of 44 pieces or 22 pairs of body chromosomes (autosomes) and a pair of sex chromosomes (gonosomes), namely XX in females and XY in males. In haploid cells such as egg cells or sperm cells, there are 23 chromosomes consisting of 22 autosomes and a gonosome. Egg cells have 22 autosomes and 1 X, while sperm have 22 autosomes and 1 X or 1 Y.

Chromosome functions include as a place to store genetic information that will be passed from parent to child to form the characteristics and characteristics of that individual. Plays an important role in the process of cell division.

Determines the sex of an individual. The structure of the Chromosome Section includes:

• Centromere The central part of a chromosome which is usually round in shape. At the centromere there is a kinetochore which has an important function during cell division. It is at this point that the spindle threads attach to each of the opposite poles.
• Chromatids are one of the two arms of the replicated chromosome. On the chromosome arm there is a chromonema, which is a spiral-shaped band. On chromonema you can see thickening in the form of beads called chromomeres. Usually chromeres are difficult to observe, but they can be seen clearly in chromosomes that have done a lot of replication. Kromonema is covered by a special substance called matrix. Chromatids are attached to each other at the centromere.
• Telomeres are the term used to denote the ends of chromosomes. Telomeres function to keep DNA at the ends unraveled and prevent one arm from meeting with the other chromosome arm. Telomeres also function to protect chromosomes from environmental threats.
• Chromomeres are bead-shaped structures that are accumulations of chromatin material that are sometimes seen during interphase. Chromomeres are very clearly visible on polytene chromosomes (chromosomes with DNA that has been replicated many times without separation and are located side by side until the chromosomes form like wires).
• Satellites are part of the chromosomes that are circular in shape and are located at the ends of the chromatid arms. Satellites are formed due to secondary constriction in that area.

Chromosome Arrangement

Chromosomes in prokaryotic organisms are in the form of RNA only. This can be found in the mosaic virus (tobacco). Chromosomes can also be just DNA, for example in the T virus, and can also contain both DNA and RNA, as in the Escherichia coli bacteria.

Chromosomes contain structures consisting of thin, coiled threads. Along these threads are regularly located structures called genes. Each gene occupies a specific place in the chromosome. The location of a gene on a chromosome is called a gene locus. So it is this gene that actually functions to regulate the traits that will be passed on from parents to offspring. In addition, genes also regulate the development and metabolism of individuals. Genes are made up of DNA (Nucleic acid).

A number of genes lined up on each chromosome have a special job. There are genes that regulate flower color, hair height, nose shape, hair type, hair color, blood type, coat color and so on. The number of chromosomes in each organism is different in different types of organisms. The size of the chromosomes also varies greatly from one type of organism to another.

In every cell of the body, chromosomes are in pairs. Paired chromosomes that have the same shape, size and composition are called homologous chromosomes. Each pair of homologous chromosomes is different from other pairs of homologous chromosomes. The chromosomes of body cells are in pairs (allelic) so that the body’s chromosomes consist of two sets. The two sets of chromosomes in the body cell are diploid (2n). In sex cells (gametes) there are no pairs or only one set of chromosomes. One set of chromosomes in sex cells is haploid (n).

Chromosome Building Materials

The building blocks of chromosomes are chromatin threads which consist of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA as a result of transcription and protein (histones or acids and non-histones or bases). Each chromatid carries a DNA molecule whose structure is in the form of a double strand so that in both chromatids there are two DNA molecules.

In humans, it includes at least 7 proteins making up the chromosomes, while other proteins do not get a place in the chromosomes. One of the proteins, CENP-A, Chromosomes in eukaryotic organisms are composed of the following parts: DNA-DNA makes up about 35% of the total number of chromosomes. RNA RNA makes up about 5% of the chromosomes.

Protein This protein consists of histones which are basic and nonhistones which are acidic. These two types of proteins function to roll up the chromosome threads so that they become faded and act as DNA doubling enzymes and DNA copying.

DNA

DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid which is a constituent of genes in the cell nucleus. DNA stores all the biological information of every living thing and some viruses. DNA consists of two polynucleotide chains arranged in a double helix. Each nucleotide consists of three components, namely a phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

There are two kinds of nitrogenous bases that make up DNA, namely purine bases consisting of adenine (A) and guanine (G) bases and pyrimidine bases consisting of thymine (T) and cytosine (S) bases. Well, these two DNA chains are bonded to each other on the nitrogenous bases connected by hydrogen bonds. Nitrogen base A binds to T, while G binds to S. Between A and T are connected by 2 hydrogen bonds, while between G and S are connected by 3 hydrogen bonds. Functions of DNA include:

• DNA Serves as a Carrier of Genetic Information The unique nature of DNA material makes researchers interested in learning more about DNA. The results of DNA can be used to help identify a murder case, even the death of someone whose identity is unknown. DNA also helps law enforcement work, because it can identify or find out information about who is the perpetrator or who is the victim through a DNA test.
• Plays a Role in Self-Duplication and Inheritance DNA is bundled into 46 chromosomes. Humans have 23 each derived from male and female germ cells. This can happen through a complex process. To be clear, germ cells, spermatozoa from males and eggs or ova from females each supply half of your DNA. This is what makes DNA play a role in self-duplication and inheritance.
• Expression of Genetic Information DNA is the basis of life. It is a complex molecule made up of four types of bases, cross-connected like a ladder, and twisted into a spiral. All four proteins are each connected to one another. And the order of all the pairs forms the genes that define who you are as well as all other organisms on earth. DNA also contains all the genetic coding used to control the function, behavior and development of an organism.
• Functions of DNA for Forensics Forensic scientists can use DNA found in blood, sperm, skin, saliva, and hair left at crime scenes to identify possible suspects. This identification is usually called genetic fingerprinting or DNA profiling.
• Functions of DNA in Computing DNA has an important role in computer science, for research and also as an example of a form of computational method. For example, database theory. Database theory was also influenced by DNA research, which had the particular problem of storing and manipulating DNA sequences. The database devoted to DNA research is the genomic database.

RNAs

RNA nitrogenous bases consist of purine bases, namely adenine (A) and guanine (G) and pyrimidine bases, namely uracil (U) and cytosine (S). The four nitrogenous bases will form pairs A – U and G – S. Adenine and uracil are connected by 2 hydrogen bonds, while guanine and cytosine are connected by 3 hydrogen bonds. RNA can be divided into two types, namely genetic RNA and nongenetic RNA. Genetic RNA is RNA that plays a role in inheritance. This RNA is only found in RNA viruses. Nongenetic RNA is RNA that plays a role in protein synthesis. Well, RNA is divided into three kinds, namely mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA. What’s the difference?

Kinds of RNA

mRNA

mRNA is a single and long chain RNA formed by DNA through the process of transcription in the cell nucleus. The nitrogenous bases along the mRNA chain constitute the genetic code called codons. mRNA functions as a carrier of the genetic code (codons) from the cell nucleus to the cytoplasm.

tRNAs

tRNA is a short, single-stranded RNA formed by DNA in the cell nucleus and transported to the cytoplasm. tRNA functions as a codon translator. The trick is to carry amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome and attach these amino acids according to the codon sequence on the mRNA. tRNA has two important attachment ends, namely the end for the attachment of the codon on the mRNA or called the anticodon and the end for the attachment of amino acids.

rRNA

rRNA is RNA that is contained in ribosomes, but is formed by DNA in the cell nucleus. rRNA functions as a polypeptide assembly machine in protein synthesis that moves in one direction along the mRNA chain.

Thus, the discussion of genetic material that has been discussed above. After reading this article to the end, we hope that Sinaumed’s can understand and add insight into genes, chromosomes, DNA and RNA.

sinaumedia Literacy – Most of the causes of disease on earth come from organisms that cannot be seen by the naked eye, one of which is a virus. Viruses are living things that are parasitic because they need a host as a place to live, which then causes illness and death in other creatures. Check out a more complete explanation of the following viruses, Sinaumed’s!

DEFINITION OF VIRUSES

The word “virus” comes from the Latin, namely virion which means poison. The virus itself always develops from time to time, so it can be said that it is very difficult to die or disappear. In fact, it is possible that new viruses will emerge which sometimes can make humans or other living things sick.

Viruses are part of microorganisms. Named part of the microorganism because it is a living thing with a size of only a few microns or maybe smaller than that, because 1 micron is equal to 0.001 mm. Based on the definition of virus above, it can be said that a virus is a parasitic organism, which requires a host to survive. These microorganisms must find a host to reproduce, including through human cells.

Without hitching a ride on its host’s body, it cannot self-replicate. Some species of these organisms can even kill their host cells in order to reproduce. If it doesn’t find a host, the virus can’t live very long, Sinaumed’s.

VIRUS CHARACTERISTICS

Viruses are often debated over their status as living things because they cannot carry out their biological functions freely. Because of this characteristic, it is always associated with certain diseases, whether in humans (eg influenza and HIV), animals (eg bird flu), or plants (eg tobacco mosaic). Then what are the characteristics possessed by the virus? Here are some of them:

1. Has only one type of nucleic acid which is covered by a capsid or protein coat. This nucleic acid is DNA or RNA.
2. Its size is very small, which is between 25 – 300 nm. For 1 nm is equal to 10-9 m.
3. The body of the virus is not cell-shaped. So the virus does not have a cell nucleus, plasma membrane, and cytoplasm.
4. Can only live and reproduce in living cells or also known as obligate intracellular parasites.
5. Is a creature metaorganism. A metaorganism is a transitional form between inanimate matter or having properties that can be crystallized and living things or can reproduce.
6. Has several body shapes. The body shape of the virus is spherical, rod, T-shape, and cylindrical.

There are lots of questions about the virus itself. Is the virus a living thing? How do viruses reproduce? And others. This question is fairly common, and is also discussed in one of the Illustrated Books Secrets of Nature 23 – Virus Secrets by Soepri Ketjil. Sinaumed’s can learn about this in the book and Sinaumed’s can also buy it by clicking “Buy a Book” below.

VIRUSES BODY STRUCTURE

In general, the body structure of a virus consists of a nucleic acid and a capsid. In addition, these microorganisms also have additional structures, such as nucleic acids consisting of DNA or deoxyribo nucleid acid or RNA or ribonucleid acid . In general, the body structure of the virus consists of 4 main parts, namely the head, body contents, tail and capsid.

1. Head

Structure of Virus Head Viruses have a head containing DNA or RNA which is the genetic material for life. The contents of this head are protected by a capsid, which is a protein sheath composed of protein. The shape of the capsid is highly dependent on the type of virus. Capsids can be spherical, polyhedral, helical, or some other more complex shape. The capsid is composed of many capsomeres or protein sub-units.

2. Fill the Body

Virus body contents or commonly called virions are genetic material in the form of one type of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA). The type of nucleic acid possessed will affect the body shape of the virus. The contents of the body are usually in the form of RNA that is shaped like a cube, round, or polyhedral, for example in viruses that cause polyomyelitis, influenza, and inflammation of the mouth and nails.

3. Tail

The tail is part of the body structure of the virus which functions as a tool to attach itself to the host cell. The tail attached to the head generally consists of several plugged tubes filled with fine threads and fibers.

4. Capsid

The capsid is a layer in the form of a series of capsomeres in the body of the virus that functions as a wrapping for DNA or RNA. The function of this capsid is to form a body and protect the virus from external environmental conditions.

The structure of the viral capsid is the structure of the virus that is located outside the virus and contains quite a lot of subunits in the form of protein. These contents are better known as capsomeres. The shape of the capsid can be said to be quite diverse, so it can affect the shape of the virus itself.

History of the Discovery of Viruses

Certainly not many people know the history of the first discovery of the virus. Therefore, below I will explain a little about the first time the virus was discovered.

1. Adolf Mayer

When it comes to who was the first to discover a virus in this world, the answer is Adolf Meyer who is a scientist from Germany. He first discovered the virus in 1883 by observing tobacco leaves which had yellow spots.

After seeing this, Adolf Meyer began to do his research by extracting tobacco sap which then sprayed it on tobacco leaves that were in good health. The sap that has been sprayed turns out to make (healthy) tobacco leaves appear yellow spots.

Thanks to his curiosity, Adolf Meyer began to find out why tobacco leaves had yellow spots using a microscope. From his observations through a microscope it was found that the tobacco leaves (which had yellow spots) had no bacteria.

From that research and observation, Adolf Meyer concluded that tobacco leaves are unhealthy because they contain creatures that are smaller than bacteria.

2. Dmitry Ivanovsky

After the discovery of the virus was carried out by Adolf Meyer, then in 1892 there was a scientist named Dmitri Ivanovsky and he came from Russia. You could say that the research conducted by Dmitri Ivanovsky is almost the same as that of Adolf Meyer, it’s just that the difference lies in the filtering. The sap filtered by Dmitri Ivanovsky uses a bacterial filter.

The filter results are then sprayed onto the tobacco leaves which are still in good health. After being sprayed, healthy tobacco leaves turn sick. The results of this study are the same as Adolf Meyer’s where (healthy) tobacco leaves turn sick because of creatures that can make tobacco leaves unhealthy anymore.

3. Martinus Beijerinck

Research on viruses continues to develop using tobacco leaves, it’s just that the research conducted by Martinus Bejerinck is more directed at eliminating or deactivating creatures that cause disease. He is a scientist who comes from the Netherlands.

Martinus Beijerinck uses alcohol to inactivate creatures that can make living things sick. As it turned out, the research still could not deactivate creatures that were smaller than bacteria and Martinus Beijeinck called them viruses that passed the filter.

4. Wendell Meredith Stanley

In 1935, there was a researcher from the United States, Wendell Merdith Stanley, who conducted research on creatures that could cause tobacco leaves to become sick. From the research conducted, he managed to crystallize the creature and then the disease that occurs in tobacco leaves is called Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV).

Virus Classification

Virus Classification Based on Host Cell Type

1. Plant Attack Virus

This virus can damage the plants you are planting and caring for, for example Tungro and TMV.

2. Human Attack Virus

There are many viruses that attack humans and some viruses are harmful to humans, such as the HIV influenza virus, the corona virus, the omicron virus, and others.

3. Animal Attack Virus

This animal-attacking virus can make the animal you care for fall sick or even die, for example bird flu, rabies, and so on.

4. Bacteria Attack Virus

One example of a bacterial attack virus is the T.

Classification of Viruses Based on Presence or Absence of Envelope in the Nucleocapsid

1. Enveloped Virus

Enveloped viruses are viruses in which there are glycoproteins and lipoproteins inside the envelope, for example Paramyxovirus, Herpesvirus, Togavirus, Rhabdovirus, and Poxyvirus .

2. Naked Viruses

Naked viruses are viruses that do not have a nucleopasid sheath, such as Adenovirus, Reovirus, Papovirus, and Picornavirus.

Classification of Viruses Based on the Type of Nucleic Acid

Some viruses are classified based on the type of nucleic acid, including:

1. DNA viruses

DNA viruses are viruses in which the nucleic acid is in the form of DNA, for example parvovirus .

2. RNA viruses

RNA viruses are viruses in which the nucleic acid content is in the form of RNA, for example picornavirus .

Virus Classification Based on Basic Forms

If classified according to the basic form, then the virus is divided into three types, viz

1. Helical Virus

This virus only has one axis of rotation in which the shape of the axis is like a long rod, the shape of a helix, and the nucleocapsid is easy to move or not rigid, for example the flu virus.

2. Complex Viruses

As the name suggests, this virus has a fairly complex structure when compared to other types of viruses, such as the smallpox virus.

3. Virus with Icohedral Shape

In contrast to helical viruses, the number of axes in this virus has two double rotations and its layout is only limited by 20 equilateral triangles, for example the polio virus.

Virus Classification Based on Genome Type and Replication

Type I viruses

This type I virus consists of double-stranded DNA and its reproduction is carried out by means of replication, for example Herpesvirus .

Type II viruses

Type II viruses consist of single-stranded DNA and their reproduction is carried out by means of replication, for example MVM viruses.

Type III viruses

Type II viruses, consisting of RNA with reliable threads and their reproduction is carried out by replication, for example Reovirus .

Type IV viruses

Type IV viruses consist of single-stranded (+) RNA and their reproduction is carried out by replication, for example polio virus.

Type V viruses

Type V virus consists of RNA with a single strand (-) and its reproduction is carried out by replication, for example the rabies virus.

Type VI viruses

Type VI viruses consist of single-stranded RNA (+) and DNA as an intermediary and their reproduction is carried out by reverse transcription, for example the AIDS virus.

Type VII viruses

Type VII viruses consist of double-stranded RNA with RNA as an intermediary and reproduce by reverse transcription, for example Heparnavirus .

Virus Classification Based on the Number of Capsomeres

1. Viruses with 32 capsomeres, such as Parvovirus .

2. Viruses with 60 capsomeres, such as Picornavirus .

3. Viruses with 72 capsomeres, such as Papovirus .

4. Viruses with 162 capsomeres, such as Herpesvirus .

5. Viruses with 252 caposmers, such as Adenovirus .

TYPES OF VIRUSES

1. DNA VIRUSES

DNA viruses are viruses whose genetic material is in the form of nucleic acids in the form of double-stranded strands. Inside the host cell, the DNA in the virus will undergo replication into several DNA and will also experience transcription into mRNA. The mRNA then undergoes translation to produce viral envelope proteins.

Still inside the host cell, viral DNA and proteins construct themselves into new viruses. mRNA will also form a destructing enzyme (lysozyme) so that the host cell lysis (destroys) and the viruses come out to infect other host cells. Examples of these viruses:

• Papilloma
• Polyloma
• Parvovirus B19
• Adenoviruses
• Herpes simplex I (sores around the mouth)
• Herpes simplex II (genital sores)
• Varicella zoster (chickenpox)
• Epstein-Barr virus
• Cytomegalovirus
• Vaccinia
• Roseola
• Cowpox
• Smallpox
• Bacteriophage
• Hepatitis B virus
• Smallpox virus
• Transfusion Transmitted Virus
• JC virus (progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy)
• Anellovirus
• Salterprovirus

2. RNA VIRUSES

RNA virus is a virus whose genetic material is in the form of nucleic acid in the form of a single or double untwisted chain. Inside the host cell, the RNA in the virus will undergo reverse transcription to become an RNA-DNA hybrid and eventually form DNA. Furthermore, the viral DNA will enter the nucleus of the host cell, inserting into the host DNA. Viral DNA will damage the host DNA and form mRNA. mRNA will undergo translation to produce viral envelope proteins to form new viruses. Examples of these viruses:

• HIV AIDS
• Influenza
• Hepatitis E Virus
• Poliovirus
• Paramyxovirus Paramyxovirus
• Enteric viruses
• Rubella virus
• Yellow fever virus
• Encephalitis virus
• DHF RNA tumor virus (dengue fever)
• Rabies Measles Rhinovirus (fever and runny nose)
• Reovirus (diarrhoea)
• Mumps
• Rotavirus
• enterovirus
• Hepatovirus
• ebola virus

One of the most well-known deadly viruses is the Ebola virus. Is the world’s most deadly disease, only a few weeks of patients infected with this virus can die. Approximately 90% of patients infected with the Ebola virus end in death.

The initial symptoms of the patient are similar to runny nose, fever, headache, diarrhea and weakness. In full, the book Deadly Ebola Virus by the Editors of Health Secret explains more about the Ebola virus, how to prevent it, and also what we need to prepare to deal with it. And you can also buy Sinaumed’s by clicking “Buy a Book” below.

Virus form

Viruses that we often know are usually in the form of a circle, but in reality there are many different shapes of viruses. Then, what are the forms of viruses that exist?

1. Viruses with filaments or threads

Like a thread, this virus can be said to have a fairly thin size, for example the Ebola virus.

2. Virus with a Round Shape

Round-shaped viruses are viruses that are generally known by many people, one example of this virus shape is the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

3. A virus shaped like the letter T

This virus looks almost the same as the letter T. Viruses with this shape, for example, exist in viruses that interfere with the health of Eschirichia coli bacteria , also known as bacteriophages.

4. Virus with Stem Shape

We can see this stem virus in the Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV).

5. Viruses with Stem Shapes and Oval Edges

In this rod-shaped virus with an oval tip, one example is the Rhabdovirus .

6. Virus with Polyhedral Shape

One example of a virus that has a polyhedral shape is Adenovirus .

POSITIVE IMPACT OF THE VIRUS

The term virus has the connotation of something deadly, but this bad reputation does not apply universally because viruses are not always harmful. There are several viruses that are beneficial to human life, here are some of them:

1. HEALTH SECTOR

Some viruses that play a role in the health sector as cancer prevention and body health control are as follows:

• Viruses play a role in the manufacture of some vaccines. Such as polio vaccine, measles, smallpox, cancer, and others. The content contained in the benefits of the vaccine is a virus that is dead or weakened and causes fever for the person who is injected with the vaccine. Then, the immune system will record it and form antibodies in the body. So if these diseases come to attack, the body’s immune system prevents them from entering.
• Some viruses play a role in controlling some cancer cells which will be killed by using the cell-killing effects of viruses directly, rather than using the immune system.
• Virus-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (VDEPT), is a viral therapy in which the target cells are infused with enzymes and can activate and deactivate precursors and cytotoxics which are arranged systematically.
• Make antitoxin. This antitoxin is formed by combining viral DNA and beneficial genes. Then, viral DNA connects human DNA with bacterial DNA. Thus, bacterial cells contain human genes that can produce antitoxins.
• Ingredients for insulin. A cancer-causing virus is grafted with insulin-producing genes into bacteria. Thus, the bacteria can multiply and produce insulin.
• Gene therapy by changing the gene that causes infection into a gene that cures
• Bacteriophages has been successful in curing typhus in chickens and dysentery. In 1921, bacteriophages were used to fight the Staphylococcus virus that attacks the skin. Its working system is to stick to the pathogenic bacteria and infect it until the bacteria die.

2. AGRICULTURE SECTOR

The benefits of viruses in agriculture can be seen from the use of biological organisms in controlling damage by pests or what is commonly called biological control. This activity is already widely used in agricultural systems, here are some of them:

• Insect pest control via Baculoviruses, or a group of viruses that can infect insects and other arthropods. Baculoviruse implanted in agricultural crop genes. Then the insect larvae eat the plant. The virus then infects the cells and grows in the larvae’s body and over time damages the body’s tissues.
• Integrated Pest Management. The application of IPM relies on biological agents. Thus, reducing the use of pesticides which can cause environmental pollution in Sinaumed’s.

3. FIELD OF SCIENCE

Science development. Viruses have been used extensively in molecular and cellular studies to manipulate and understand the functions of cells. In addition, viruses can also be used for genetic research, such as DNA replication, transcription, RNA formation, protein formation, basic DNA for body resistance.

NEGATIVE IMPACT OF THE VIRUS

1. DISEASES IN ANIMALS

Rabies virus or Rhabdhovirus virus is a virus that can attack the human central nervous system and brain. As a result, the body will not be able to move and cause hydrophobia. This virus is transmitted to humans through the bites of warm-blooded animals that have contracted the rabies virus, such as bites from dogs, monkeys, bats and raccoons.

Therefore, it is always good to be careful with wild animals and vaccinate pets at home. Apart from that, there was also the Avian Influenza Virus Type A (H5N1), which was popular in Indonesia due to the outbreak at that time. This virus apparently attacks poultry, such as birds and chickens. The dangerous thing is that this virus can be transmitted to humans.

This type A influenza virus can cause epidemics in animals (epizootic) and various animal species in a wide area (panzootic), so that it can transmit quite a number of animals in one area. Symptoms of contracting this virus include respiratory problems, vomiting, diarrhea and general flu symptoms.

2. DISEASES IN PLANT

Tobacco Mozaic Virus is the cause of mosaic disease in tobacco plants. In fact, this virus is the forerunner to the naming of the word ‘virus’ and the branch of science studying viruses (virology). This virus is able to stunt plants due to infection in plant leaves.

Symptoms of this virus consist of a light green color on the leaves of plants resembling a ‘mosaic’ pattern or stripes of light green and dark green on the leaves. There is a mutation that occurs in this virus, apparently able to attack other plants besides tobacco. For example, pumpkin, beans, cucumbers, potatoes and so on.

In addition, there is also the Rice Tungro Bacilliform Virus which can threaten rice growth, because it causes tungro disease. The symptoms of this virus are the stunting of the rice plants and the red to orange-yellow color, which results in a reduced amount of grain produced by Sinaumed’s.

3. DISEASES IN HUMANS

Some of the diseases that humans suffer are generally caused by a virus attack in the body. Viruses have a microscopic size that ranges from 20-300 millimicrons. Viruses are acellular or do not have cells, so viruses will only reproduce in living cells. The virus will attack immunity or immunity when the immune system is weak. The following are various biological viruses that threaten human health, Sinaumed’s:

HIV virus

The HIV virus is a virus that will weaken the human body’s immunity. This will cause the body to be susceptible to infection or other diseases. HIV means Human Immunodeficiency Virus. The cause of this virus is the process of physical contact with HIV sufferers through unhealthy sexual intercourse, the use of used syringes with HIV sufferers, the use of tattoo and body piercing tools.

Not only that, the virus can also be transmitted if there is contact through bodily fluids (blood, semen, etc.) of someone with HIV, such as a mother with HIV who transmits it to her baby. This virus will not be transmitted due to direct daily contact, for example touching, shaking hands, and hugging.

If this virus continues to grow, this virus can cause AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome).

Ebola Virus

The Ebola virus was first discovered near the Ebola river in Zaire (Congo) around 1976. Ebola is one of the deadliest viruses for humans. The definition of the Ebola virus is a virus that causes fever, diarrhea and bleeding. The spread of the virus through contact with objects that have been contaminated with the patient’s body fluids. Unfortunately, until now the treatment for the Ebola virus has not been found, as is the case with the HIV virus.

Corona Virus

Corona Paramyxovirus virus attacks the respiratory system so that this virus can be transmitted if humans breathe air containing this virus. The worst thing is that this virus can cause Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). Corona virus is a type of virus that can cause a person to suffer from pneumonia which infects a person’s respiratory tract. This dangerous virus spreads faster than the HIV virus and the Ebola virus.

The symptoms of this corona virus are almost the same as when someone has the flu, so sometimes for some people when they feel these symptoms they think that they have the flu. In addition, the cause of the corona virus can come from splashing water (when sneezing) and touching other people’s hands.

After the Covid-19 Virus appeared, Wuhan and other areas in China were locked down. Until March 7, 2020, less than 90 days after the initial outbreak in Wuhan, Italy did the same. Indonesia itself has regulations regarding health quarantine, such as home, regional, hospital quarantine to Large-Scale Social Restrictions.

The book, Preparedness Guide for Corona Virus by Tess Pennington, also discusses everything you need to know in preparing for quarantine, when someone is declared free from isolation, choosing masks, respirators and gloves. Of course, Sinaumed’s can buy and study this by clicking “Buy a Book” below.

Herpes Simplex virus

The Herpes Simplex virus is different from other viruses because the Herpes Simplex virus attacks human skin. The virus, commonly known as HSV, can cause sexually transmitted diseases for both men and women, causing blisters in the intimate area. The spread of this virus is generally due to sexual contact with people who are infected with this virus and pregnant women who transmit it to their unborn babies.

Dengue virus

Dengue virus can cause dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF). This virus is transmitted by the bite of the Aedes aegypti mosquito . One of the most important forms of prevention so as not to contract this virus is to maintain the cleanliness of the surrounding environment, such as cleanliness of bathtubs, trash cans and gutters.

Poliomyelitis Virus

The Poliomyelitis Virus is one of the oldest types of viruses in the world because it has been known since the late 18th century. Generally, this virus will attack children aged around 3-5 years. This virus can cause muscle weakness to paralysis of the legs. Symptoms of this virus include fever, joint pain, bone to muscle pain, muscle cramps and others. The polio virus can be transmitted through human-to-human contact, such as feces (feces) contaminated with the virus. And, generally this virus can infect other family members who live in the same house.

Omicron virus

The Omicron virus is a variant form of the corona virus. In several sources, many scientists say that the Omicron virus appears because of a unique combination of more than 50 mutations. The mutations are arguably more numerous than the Delta variant which only has 7 mutations. Therefore, the omicron virus is dangerous, so everyone must take care of each other so that this virus does not spread quickly.

Thus the definition, characteristics, structure, types, positive and negative impacts of the virus.

sinaumedia Literacy – In 1969 Robert H. Whittaker grouped living things into 5 kingdoms, namely Protista, Fungi, Monera, Animalia and Plantae.

This grouping is based on the arrangement of cells, levels of living things and how living things fulfill their food. Then this system was changed by splitting the kingdom Monera into the kingdom Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. Let’s get to know the archaebacterial kingdom closer to Sinaumed’s, along with the explanation.

DEFINITION OF ARCHAEBACTERIA

Archaebacteria live in extreme environments that are thought to have been that of early Earth life. Archaebacteria or also called ancient bacteria because they are organisms whose typical energy metabolism forms methane gas (CH ₄ ) by reducing carbon dioxide (CO ₂ ).

Archaebacteria are anaerobic and chemosynthetic with cell walls that do not contain peptidoglycan, but their plasma membranes contain lipids. Living in an extreme environment. Archaebacteria consists of bacteria that live in critical or extreme places, for example bacteria that live in hot water, bacteria that live in places with high salt content, and bacteria that can live in hot or acidic places, such as in volcanic craters. , and on peatlands.

To find out more about various other types of bacteria as well as viruses and fungi, you can read the book Biology Encyclopedia Volume 2: Bacteria, Viruses & Protists, Fungi.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ARCHAEBACTERIA

Archaebacteria can live in extreme places, such as hot springs with temperatures of 92ᴼC to nearly freezing places in Antarctica. Archaebacteria can also be found in places with very high acid or salt levels. Archaebacteria as unicellular organisms have the following characteristics, Sinaumed’s:

• Size is about 1/10 micrometer to 15 micrometer.
• Surviving in acid, salt water or alkaline environments, some can withstand pressures of over 200 atmospheres.
• The cell membrane is composed of fat, in the form of ether bonds and isoprene units.
• The cells are prokaryotic (do not have a nuclear membrane).
• Lipids are branched in the cell membrane.
• The cell wall consists of polysaccharides and proteins instead of peptidoglycan.
• Do not have ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum), mitochondria, lysosomes and golgi bodies.
• The ribosomes contain several types of RNA polymerase.
• Archaebacteria contain nucleic acid in the form of RNA.
• Reproduction by bud formation, binary fission and fragmentation.
• Sensitive to diphtheria toxin.
• Live in colonies (groups) and solitary (alone).
• Some species of Archaebacteria have flagella for locomotion.
• Most are anaerobic, but there are also several species that are aerobic, facultative anaerobes and obligate anaerobes.

ARCHAEBACTERIA BODY STRUCTURE

The differences between eubacteria and archaebacteria mainly lie in their biochemical properties. For example, eubacteria have ester bonds in the lipid layer of the plasma membrane, while archaebacteria have bonds in the form of esters. The structure between Kingdom Eubacteria and Archaebacteria is almost the same. The only difference lies in the structural composition of the bacteria. The following is an overview of the structure of Sinaumed’s bacteria:

• Flagella or Falgelum: Flagella as a filament that protrudes from the bacterial cell and consists of protein. Flagella act as a means of locomotion, but there are also bacteria without flagella that can move. Some types of bacteria have pili with structures like flagella, but shorter and thinner. Pili play a special role in transferring Genetime (DNA) molecules from one bacterium to another during conjugation events.
• Capsule: Bacteria have a thick, viscous mucus that covers the cell wall. The capsule is made of polysaccharides and water, which helps the bacteria attach to surfaces or other bacteria. In general, capsules are bacteria that cause disease. Its function is as a means of defense and protection, to prevent drying out and as a food source for bacteria.
• Cell Wall: Bacterial cell wall is a complex structure and functions as a shape determinant of the cell consisting of mucopolysaccharides and peptidoglycan which consists of large polymers of acetyl-N-acetyl linked together by covalent bonds. The difference between eubacteria and archaebacteria lies in the content of the cell wall.
• Plasma Membrane: The plasma membrane is selectively permeable i.e. only certain molecules or substances can be transferred. Composed of layers of phospholipids and proteins. The plasma membrane regulates the exchange of substances between the cell and its environment and the formation of mesosomes.
• Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm acts as the site of chemical reactions for the cell. Consists of 80% water, proteins, nucleic acids, fats, carbohydrates, inorganic ions, and chromatophores
• Ribosomes: Ribosomes are formed in the form of smooth RNA and protein granules that contribute to the survival of bacteria during protein synthesis.
• Chlorosome: Chlorosome is a structure beneath the plasma membrane, containing the pigment chlorophyll and other pigments that take part in photosynthesis. Usually found in certain bacteria, mostly archaebacteria.
• Gas Vacuoles: Gas vacuoles allow bacteria to float on the surface of the water and get to light. Gas vacuoles are only owned by water bacteria that are photosynthetic.
• Plasmids, namely circular DNA, can be inherited by carrying certain genes. Plasmids are in the cytoplasm.
• Nuclear material (chromosomal DNA): DNA is the genetic material (carrier) called chromosomes or the nucleus of bacteria. The nuclear material plays an important role in regulating the processes occurring in the bacterial cell.
• Mesosomes: Acts as an energy generator, is the center for the formation of new cell walls and cell division.

ARCHAEBACTERIA REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Bacteria generally reproduce asexually. In addition, bacteria also reproduce by exchanging genetic material with other bacteria. This process of transferring genetic material is also known as parasexual or genetic recombination.

Bacterial growth, i.e. cell division in bacterial colonies, increases the number of colonies rapidly. Factors that affect reproduction, including temperature (optimal temperature – 300°C), humidity (bacteria grow well in a humid environment), sunlight (inhibits bacterial growth because it destroys the bacterial chromosome structure), chemicals (damages or kills bacterial cell wall and inhibits bacterial growth).

Availability of food reserves and metabolic waste (decreased food reserves in the medium and the appearance of bacterial waste metabolism inhibits the growth of bacterial colonies). Archebacteria reproduce through binary fission, multiple fission, bud formation, and fragmentation, as explained by Sinaumed’s:

Binary Split

In binary fission, bacteria divide directly from one cell to two cells, four cells, eight cells, sixteen cells, and so on.

Bud Formation

Bud formation (Cyanophyta or blue-green algae): Bacteria form buds in the form of twigs and eventually precipitate to form new bacteria. It can be found in the Sreptomycetaceae family.

Fragmentation

Fragmentation (Cyanophyta or blue-green algae): Fragmentation is the breaking off of body parts that can form new individuals. Common in algae in the form of threads, and can be found in the Sinaumed’s oscillator.

Transfer of Genetic Material in archabacteria bacteria, including through:

• Connection or Conjugation: Conjugation is a way of sexual reproduction in organisms that are not yet known to men and women. Conjugation of bacteria can be carried out when two bacterial cells with different exposures are close together, forming and attaching to conjugated tubes (connecting vessels) so that genetic material (DNA) and cytoplasm can pass from one cell to another. Next, in the recipient cell, the DNA is combined (genre combination) between the donor cell DNA and the recipient cell DNA, followed by cytoplasmic incorporation (plasmogamy). After the process of dividing the nucleus in the receiving cell, the next process is binary, and the cell divides again in two.
• Transformation: Transformation is the process of transferring genetic material in the form of DNA or just one gene to another bacterium by a complex physiological process. The transformation is usually carried out by Rhizobium, Bacillus, Stretococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
• Transduction: Transduction is the transfer of bacterial genetic material to other bacteria by viral intermediaries.

ARCHAEBACTERIA CLASSIFICATION

Archaebacteria include autotrophic and heterototrophic organisms. The types of Archaebacteri are as follows.. Thermo-acidophilic bacteria Halobacterium Metagen bacteria. Kingdom Archebacteria is further grouped into 5 phyla, namely:

Crenarchaeota

Crenarchaeota, commonly found in marine environments. Crenarchaeota include hyperthermophiles, thermophiles, and thermoacidophiles.

Euryarchaeota

Euryarchaeota are the part that is often studied and most of them are included in the halophiles and methanogenic bacteria.

Thaumarchaeota

The Thaumarchaeota include the ammonia-oxidizing archaea and those known to metabolize energy.

Nanoarchaeota

Nanoarchaeota, this phylum has a single representative member, namely nanoarchaeum equitans.

Korarchaeota

Korarchaeota, consisting of hyperthermophiles found at high ambient temperatures.

Archaebacteria Group Based on Metabolism and Habitat

Archaebacteria are also grouped based on their metabolism and habitat. The following is a group of archaebacteria along with examples.

Mentagonen

Methanogens: a group of Archaebacteria that reduce carbon dioxide (CO ₂ ) to water (H ₂ O) and methane (CH ₄ ) using hydrogen (H ₂). Methanogens are chemosynthetic and anaerobic. Its habitat is in swamps, mud and places with little oxygen. There are also several species that live and live in symbiosis in the stomach or digestive tract of ruminant animals, such as termites, cows, and other herbivores that rely on cellulose for food. Methanogens have an important role in nutrition. An example is Succinomonas amylolytica as a starch breaker in the digestion of cows. In addition, methanogens also act as decomposers, so they can be used in animal waste processing to produce methane gas, which is an alternative fuel. Methanogens get food by decomposing the remains of dead plants, then produce methane gas. _{This type of bacteria is capable of producing CH 4} methanefrom the oxidation of H2 and CO2 _, for example:

• Lachnospora multiporus: These organisms break down and simplify pectin
• Succumonas amylotica: Has the ability to break down aluminum
• Ruminococcus albus: This organism is capable of hydrolyzing cellulose by breaking down cellulose
• Methanococcus janashi: Is a producer of methane gas

Extreme thermophiles

Extreme thermophiles (thermoacidophilic): Extreme thermophiles (thermoacidophilic) are a group of Archaebacteria organisms whose habitat is in an acidic and hot environment, can live at a maximum temperature of 60-80ᴼC. Thermoacidophiles live by oxidizing water containing sulfur and are near hydrothermal vents in the ocean below.

Thermoacidophilic is the Archaebacteria group closest to eukaryotic organisms. Sulfolobus sp is a thermoacidophilic organism that lives in sulfur hot springs in Yellowstone National Park (United States of America). Sulfolobus sp lives by oxidizing sulfur to get energy. This group is also called thermoacidophiles, because they like acid and heat. Another Archaebacteria organism, namely Thermus aquaticus, lives in water with a temperature of 105ᴼC near hydrothermal vents in the deep sea (underwater volcanic craters).

Examples of thermoacidophiles are: Thermoproteus tenax, Thermoplasma acidophilum, Humicola insolens, Chaetomium thermophilum, Thermomyces lanuginosus, Brevibacillus levickii, Thermoascus aurantiacus and Sulfolobus yangmingensis.

Extreme Halophile

Extreme halophile (halophilic): The term Halophile comes from two Greek words, namely ‘halo’ which means salt and ‘philos’ which means lover. Extreme halophiles (halophiles) are a group of Archaebacteria that live in salty places with high salt levels, such as the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake (salt lake in America). Halophiles are heterotrophs. To produce energy, halophiles carry out aerobic respiration, some can photosynthesize.

Examples of extreme halophiles: Genus Halobacterium, Halobacterium, Halococcus, Halogeometricum borinquense, Haloferax volcanii, Haloterrigena turkmenica, Halococcus dombrowskii, Halorubrum kocurii, Halobacterium salinarum, Haloarcula marismortui and others.

Sulfur Reduction

Sulfur reducers: Like methanogens, sulfur reducers live near volcanic vents and swimming pools. They use the abundant inorganic sulfur which is often found near the vents along with hydrogen as food. They also have a very high heat tolerance, so they can live in temperatures up to 85 degrees Celsius.

There are also various kinds of enteric bacteria and mucous membranes that we can encounter in everyday life which you can learn about in Bacteriology book 2 Textbook of Health Analysts.

BENEFITS OF ARCHAEBACTERIA

Archaebacteria are organisms whose typical energy metabolism forms methane gas (CH4) by reducing carbon dioxide (CO2). Archaebacteria are anaerobic and chemosynthetic. The name “archaebacteria,” with its prefix meaning “ancient,” as well as the fact that most of the Monera were discovered at the time of primitive Earth led many to believe that archaebacteria may have been the earliest forms of life on this planet. Archaebacteria benefits for human survival, including:

• Several archaebacteria enzymes in the food industry are useful for converting cardiac starch into dextrins (a type of carbohydrate). For example: A. oryzae, Aspergillus niger, A. niger, Bacillus coagulans.
• Archaebacteria enzymes are added to detergents or laundry soap to increase their ability to withstand high pH and temperatures. For example: Streptococcus bovis, Bacillus stearothermophilus and B.Lactobacillus plantarum.
• As a producer of biogas for alternative fuels.
• Several species of archaebacteria are used to deal with pollution, for example oil spills. Examples: Achromobacter (Alcaligenes), Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter and Acinetobacter.

Not all of the bacteria in the world can be harmful to humans or animals. But there are also bacteria that can help human survival. The book Everything About Bacteria and Viruses that is below will explain the various types of bacteria that exist in the environment.

NEGATIVE IMPACT OF ARCHAEBACTERIA AND ITS MANAGEMENT

However, there are also archaebacteria that are detrimental to humans, namely Archaebacteria, which can damage food preserved in salt and cause rapid decomposition of marine fish. In addition, harmful bacteria can also cause disease. You can see this in the book Bacteriology: Microorganisms that Cause Infection below.

Tackling food spoilage bacteria that can be done, among others, by preserving and processing food. Meanwhile, tackling bacteria that cause disease is carried out by maintaining cleanliness and health, as well as immunization. Here’s the explanation:

• Food Preservation and Processing: Food preservation and processing is an effort to make food conditions not easily damaged by microorganisms, such as bacteria. Food that is preserved and processed makes it not an optimum place for bacteria to live. Food preservation is carried out by means of sweetening, drying, smoking, pickling, salting and cooling. For example: crackers, smoked meat, pickles, salted fish, candied fruit and sale. Food processing by heating can kill most of the disease-causing microorganisms found in food and beverages. Forms of heating food and drinks can be done by cooking as usual or in a special way. e.g. pasteurization or sterilization.
• Maintain Personal and Environmental Hygiene and Health: Diseases caused by microorganisms arise due to a way of life that lacks cleanliness. Disease is also easier to attack people who are physically weak, this causes the need for efforts to maintain cleanliness and health in order to avoid various kinds of diseases. Efforts that can be made to maintain cleanliness and health include the following: keeping the environment clean, maintaining body hygiene by bathing and washing hands before eating, doing regular exercise, eating nutritious food, getting enough rest.
• Immunization: As an effort to gain immunity against diseases caused by microorganisms, such as bacteria. Immunization stimulates a person’s immunity by administering weakened pathogenic microorganisms. Immunization is also called vaccination or vaccine administration. Examples of vaccines to prevent diseases caused by bacteria are as follows: Cholera vaccine to prevent cholera. Typhus vaccine to prevent typhus. BCG vaccine to prevent TB disease. DPT vaccine to prevent diphtheria, pertussis or cough and tetanus.

Thus the definition, characteristics, body structure, reproduction, classification, benefits and negative impacts of archaebacteria in everyday life. Hope this is useful Sinaumed’s, enjoy learning!

Functions of blood – Hello Sinaumed’s friends , have you ever wondered what exactly is the function of blood in the human body? There is no denying that blood is an important part of the human body. However, how important is the presence of blood in the body and what exactly is the function of blood itself? The function of blood for the human body is very important. Blood is the combination of plasma and cells that circulates throughout the body. Quoting Sehatq.com , blood flow in adults is equivalent to 7% of the person’s body weight.

Having an adequate amount of blood plays a very important role in maintaining the body’s metabolism. It should be understood that one of the functions of blood is to provide important substances needed by the body such as; sugar, oxygen, and hormones.

This function is supported by the presence of organs in charge of pumping blood. This organ is the heart that pumps blood throughout the body to meet the needs of oxygen and nutrients.

Continue to listen to the explanation in the following discussion regarding the function of blood in the human body. But before that, you should know in advance what is the meaning of blood.

Definition of Blood

Blood is a fluid contained in blood vessels that has the function of regulating acid and base balance, transporting O2, carbohydrates, and metabolites, regulating body temperature by conduction or conduction, carrying body heat from heat production centers (liver and muscles) to be distributed to the body. throughout the body, and hormone regulation by carrying and delivering from the gland to the target.

Blood contains not only hormones, oxygen, nutrients and impurities in the body. Blood is home to plasma, cells and proteins. This is what makes blood thicker than water.

On closer inspection, blood is more than just a fluid that helps the nose run. However, it is also a way to transmit various things in the human body. In addition, blood is actually not completely liquid. Blood consists of solids and fluids.

The solid part of the blood contains many different blood cells. The liquid part of blood is called plasma. Plasma consists of salts, proteins and water. Plasma makes up at least 55% of the total blood composition.

There are also three types of blood cells in the blood. There are red blood cells which carry oxygen. Platelets are responsible for blood clotting. White blood cells are responsible for defending the body against various diseases that can attack the body.

These blood cells are made from bone marrow. Red blood cells can live for about 120 days. Platelets can last up to six days. White blood cells live less than a day.

Functions of Blood in the Human Body

Human blood is a liquid in the body that is used to carry the oxygen needed by cells throughout the body. Blood also supplies nutrients to body tissues, transports metabolic waste products, and contains various building blocks for the immune system which protects the body from various diseases. Hormones from the endocrine system also circulate in the blood.

Human blood is red in color, from bright red when it is rich in oxygen to dark red when it is deficient. The red color of blood is due to hemoglobin, a respiratory protein that contains iron in the heme form to which oxygen molecules bind.

Humans have a closed circulatory system, meaning that blood flows through the veins and circulates through the heart. Blood is pumped by the heart to the lungs to remove metabolic waste products in the form of carbon dioxide and take oxygen through the pulmonary arteries, then returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins.

The blood is then carried throughout the body via the aorta. Blood carries oxygen throughout the body through tiny blood vessels called capillaries. Blood then returns to the heart via the superior and inferior vena cava. Here are some of the functions of blood for the human body:

1. Supplying Oxygen to Cells and Tissues

One of the first and main functions of blood is to transport oxygen. Air that enters the body and contains oxygen will enter the lungs. Then the air will go through several processes. Then the oxygen will enter the capillaries of the human body.

The next step is for oxygen to enter the plasma. Oxygen diffuses into the red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes. This happens because of the function of red blood cells which contain hemoglobin or Hb to bind oxygen in the blood.

This process is called deoxidation. Oxygen in the body will be converted into HbO2. Change can occur at a rate of about 97%. The rest will be in the plasma. Then it is transported and distributed to the tissues in the human body.

2. Circulates Hormones

Blood also has the function of circulating hormones in the body. Hormones are obtained in the presence of a stimulus or stimulus. These stimuli can come from outside the human body or from within the human body itself.

Blood will carry these hormones. Then the exocrine glands will take hormones that are not useful. Then it will be eliminated in the special channels of the human body.

While the blood will carry hormones that have been previously filtered into normal channels. This means that there is no special flow required by the exocrine glands.

Blood functions in the digestive system and endocrine system functions. Completely digested nutrients will be absorbed into the bloodstream through the capillaries in the small intestine. Some of the nutrients that are transported such as; amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and glucose. These nutrients will be circulated by the blood to the body’s cells.

3. Attacks Bacteria and Germs

Blood is also used to attack bacteria and germs that enter the human body. This function can occur due to the function of leukocytes or leukocytes. There are five white blood cells in the human body. These include neutrophils, lymphocytes, basophils, monocytes, and eosinophils.

The largest white blood or leukocytes are neutrophils. The amount can reach 60%. Neutrophils have a function to attack germs and bacteria that enter the human body. Even so, other white blood cells also have other roles. Such as attacking germs, producing antibodies, and removing the remnants of damaged cells.

4. Distributing Food Essence

The next function of blood is to transport and distribute nutrients. Blood circulates in all parts of the body by spreading nutrients from absorption of oxygen. These food extracts are also obtained from protein, some vitamins or carbohydrates which are obtained from the food that has been consumed.

The process of transporting and spreading this food essence occurs after the process of digestion of food occurs. Before the food extracts are distributed, the food essence will first pass through the liver. This happens to filter out all the toxins and other harmful substances present in the blood.

After the filtering process, then the nutrients or food extracts are circulated throughout the human body. This will help the body get adequate and even nutrition.

5. Heal Wounds

Blood can also heal wounds. This is one function of the presence of blood in the human body. Part of the blood that plays a role in wound healing is called platelets. Platelets have a role to heal wounds on the human epidermis.

During this process, platelets release the substances they contain. This substance combines with vitamin K to form blood to clot. After the platelets freeze, they will slowly try to cover the wound on the human epidermis.

If the number of platelets in the blood is reduced, this will have an effect on the wound. Wounds become difficult to treat. Because in this section there is no substance that can cover the wound and cause blood to clot.

6. Regulate Body Temperature

Blood also functions to regulate the temperature of the human body. Body temperature will be maintained stable at 36 degrees to 37 degrees Celsius. Body temperature is also affected by blood circulation. The human body temperature is not affected by environmental conditions. However, it is affected by the human circulatory system.

As a result of blood oxidation, heat is generated in the body. If the oxidation is good, then the body temperature will also tend to be good. If the oxidation is not good, then the temperature in the body will also tend to be bad.

Blood absorbs and distributes heat throughout the body. This fluid will help maintain homeostasis. By releasing or retaining heat. Homeostasis is the regulation of conditions in the human body. Such as moisture content, temperature and carbon dioxide levels.

Blood vessels can also expand and contract in response to foreign organisms. Like bacteria or hormones in it. Also, when there is a chemical change.

This action will cause the blood to send more heat to human skin. Heat can be lost to the air. Blood vessels may constrict, which will have the effect of reducing heat loss through the skin once body temperature returns to normal.

7. Carrying the Remaining Oxidation of Body Cells

The next function of blood is to transport cellular oxidative waste. Oxidation of these cells is carried out because they are not useful for the body, so they are removed from the body. This can be seen when breathing.

There, the transport of oxygen occurs. Oxygen is carried by blood to the heart. Then, the heart will undergo a process and will circulate in all parts of the body. After being removed from the heart organ, oxygen which produces carbon dioxide is finally released by the blood. Elimination occurs during expiration simultaneously with exhalation.

8. Removing Remaining Substances of Cell Metabolism

The next function of the blood is to remove waste from metabolism or cellular excretion. This happens because not all blood-carrying substances are beneficial to the human body. Some substances that do not have a metabolic function will be transported by the blood to the excretory organs. These substances will flow into the excretory system or excretion. Such as liver, kidney and skin.

9. Germ Storage

Blood has another function, which is to store germs. In addition, blood can also keep the body fit and healthy. Prevention of blood diseases is done through blood platelets, also known as blood platelets.

This blood chip is used to bury pathogens from spreading throughout the human body. Blood will control it. Disease germs will also be killed by blood flakes. This is what makes the human body healthier.

10. Against Various Diseases

White blood cells or leukocytes are blood components responsible for fighting disease. The blood cell count is just low. About one percent of the circulating blood volume. However, these white blood cells or white blood cells can multiply. These white blood cells multiply during inflammation or infection to become more numerous.

There are five types of white blood cells, namely neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell, accounting for as much as 60-70 percent of all white blood cells.

11. Carrying Water

The volume of the human body is mostly made up of water. This water is found in plasma. Water in the human body will flow through blood vessels and capillaries. This will allow water to reach all organs or parts of the human body.

The need for water in the human body will help prevent all kinds of health problems that may arise. In addition, it can also help the digestive process. Another function of water in the body is to help the metabolic system that occurs in the human body.

12. Maintaining Acid-Base Levels of Body Fluids

Blood also functions to maintain acid and alkaline levels of fluids or pH in the human body. This function is performed to prevent damage to body tissues. This damage can occur because it can be caused by buffer compounds.

13. Transports Waste to Kidneys and Liver

Another function of the blood is to transport body waste to the kidneys and liver. The function of the blood is to transport waste to the organs which are responsible for removing and processing these wastes for elimination. These organs are the kidneys and liver.

In the kidneys, substances such as uric acid, urea and creatinine are filtered from the blood plasma. The substance then enters the ureters. Then excreted from the body in the form of urine. The liver also removes toxins from the blood. Vitamin-rich blood is the result of absorption from the digestive organs, after which it is cleaned by the liver. These vitamins are then distributed to the body’s cells.

Blood Disorders

Abnormalities in Red Blood Cells

Blood disorders depend on the part of the blood that is disturbed and the underlying cause. Here are some blood disorders that affect red blood cells:

1. Anemia

Anemia occurs when the number of red blood cells is very low, which can be caused by excessive bleeding, iron deficiency or vitamin B12 deficiency. When anemia is severe, the person will look pale, tire easily, and often have difficulty breathing.

2. Aplastic anemia

This condition occurs when the bone marrow does not produce enough blood cells, including red blood cells. The cause of aplastic anemia is unknown, but is thought to be caused by a viral infection, autoimmune disease, side effects of drugs, chemotherapy, and pregnancy.

3. Autoimmune hemolytic anemia

In autoimmune hemolytic anemia, the immune system becomes overactive and destroys red blood cells, causing anemia. This condition is caused by an autoimmune disease, which is a condition when the body’s immune system attacks itself.

4. Sickle cell anemia

This condition makes red blood cells sticky and stiff, thereby blocking blood flow. Sickle cell disease is an inherited disease. People with this condition can experience organ damage and unbearable pain.

5. Polycythemia vera

Polycythemia vera occurs when the blood becomes too thick because the bone marrow makes too many red blood cells. This condition can increase the risk of blood clots, strokes, and heart attacks.

Abnormalities in White Blood Cells

1. Leukemia

Leukemia is a type of blood cancer in which white blood cells become malignant and are overproduced in the bone marrow. The exact cause of this condition is still unknown.

2. Multiple myeloma

Multiple myeloma is a blood cancer that occurs when white blood cells become malignant. In this condition, white blood cells produce, multiply, and release abnormal proteins that can damage organs.

3. Myelodysplastic syndrome

Myelodysplastic syndrome is a blood disorder that affects the bone marrow. This condition occurs when the bone marrow is unable to make healthy blood cells.

4. Lymphoma

Lymphoma is a blood cancer that develops in the lymph nodes. White blood cells in people with lymphoma become malignant, spread abnormally, and multiply uncontrollably.

What are the characteristics of living things? – Every living thing has characteristics. Starting from the special characteristics to the general characteristics. Living things consist of humans, animals and plants.

Each of them has characteristics, although not always the same. This article will discuss the characteristics of a living thing.

1. Breathe

The process of breathing will involve oxygen and carbon dioxide. For humans, they breathe using the nose. Inhaling oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide by several processes. The body will experience biological oxidation, occurring in body cells that need oxygen. This process will produce carbon dioxide due to the process of burning food substances by oxygen. The organ responsible for breathing is the lungs.

In plants, the process of breathing is called photosynthesis. In the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is processed together with water and sunlight. This process takes place in the stomata. There will be solid glucose consumed by the plant from that process. After that, oxygen will be released by the plant through the stomata.

The process of breathing in animals occurs differently. Depending on the type of animal and the type of environment in which it lives. For example, mammals heat up using their noses and lungs. Unlike fish, hot fish use gills which are located on the left and right sides of the fish’s head.

Learn about the growth and development of living things in a fun, varied, creative, and responsible way through the book Thematic 3A Growth & Development of Living Things in the 2013 Revised 2016 Curriculum which acts as a facilitator and motivator.

2. Requires Nutrition

The nutrients needed by the body include food and drink. Drinks also have an important role in obtaining nutrition. Drinks or water will be used by the body for solvents in the body.

For humans and animals, they cannot produce their own food through the body. However, it is different with plants. Plants can produce food through their own bodies.

3. Move

Moving, which is meant by the characteristics of plants, does not mean moving places, or doing mobility. Animals and humans have a locomotor system. Like muscles, joints and bones that can be used to move. Animals and humans use them to move like walking and running. In contrast to plants, plants move on the reaction to the environment.

The motion that occurs in plants only occurs in a few parts, which are limited. Examples include the movement of flowers from bud to bloom, when plants move in search of water or sunlight. There are several types of motion in plants, namely taxis movement, nasti movement, and tropism movement. These movements occur due to the reaction of hormones in plants, for example, the hormone auxin.

4. React to Stimulation or Irritability

Every living thing must be able to respond to or receive a stimulus. Stimuli that can be felt by living things such as sound, light, taste, touch, smell, and others.

Reactions to stimuli that can be felt by animals and plants occur because they have a special system. These systems are the nervous system, hormone system, muscular system and sensory system. This allows animals and humans to hear, smell, see, touch or feel, and can feel a taste.

Unlike plants. Plants do not have the systems that exist in animals and humans. However, the body can still react to stimuli. Like when there is sunlight, Earth’s gravitational force, touch, the presence of chemicals and water.

5. Grow and Develop

In animals and humans growth and development do not occur continuously, one day it can stop. While growth in plants is not limited. As long as the plant is alive, growth and development will continue.

In humans and animals, growth begins while still a fetus. The fetus will come out so that it experiences development and growth little by little. Meanwhile, in different plants. Plant development and growth begins when the plant is still a seed. Then it grows and develops until the plant dies.

Study the various plants that are spread throughout the world in the Encyclopedia of World Flora which is below. This book is equipped with interesting explanations and pictures of flora so that Sinaumed’s will be more enthusiastic about learning it.

6. Reproduce or Multiply

In humans, the reproductive process begins with the fertilization of the egg and continues through the process of fertilization. Generally the process of reproduction in animals is the same as the process that occurs in humans. Meanwhile, plants reproduce in a different way. Plants can reproduce by themselves or with the help of humans.

Processes that occur in plants can take place vegetatively (not mating) and generatively (mating). Examples vegetatively are through shoots, tubers, geraniums, remaining roots, spores, or dividing. While generative examples through the process of pollination.

7. Removing Residual Substances

Animals and humans have the same way of removing waste substances. The remaining substances are released in the form of gas, liquid, and solid substances. Unlike plants. Plants excrete waste materials through stomata.

8. Adapt

When a living thing cannot adapt to its environment, it has to move. Moved elsewhere to adapt. If the living thing does not migrate but cannot adapt either, then it will die.

9. Requires a certain ambient temperature

Likewise with animals. For example, like polar bears who live in polar regions with low or cold temperatures. If a polar bear is placed in an environment with warm temperatures it will definitely not survive. Plants that live in a humid environment will have different leaves that are thin and wide like clover plants.

10. Experiencing Metabolism

In addition to oxygen, the basic material needed when carrying out metabolism is a substrate. Substrates are nutrients that come from food or beverage substances. In this metabolic process, food substances that enter the body and are digested will be broken down. The substance will undergo various processes. After that it will be divided into various kinds of energy and compounds for the body.

11. Regulation

Regulation is a characteristic of living things. Regulation is an ability possessed by living things. This ability includes how to make harmony in the body. The regulation is regulated by hormones and nerves.

That is information about the characteristics of living things.

Animals that are active at night – When night comes, has Sinaumed’s ever met some animals that usually have glowing eyes? Or have you ever met animals that are busy doing their activities at night?

Well, animals that are active at night are called nocturnal animals . The common feature of these nocturnal animals is sleeping during the day, then doing all their activities at night.

Then, what are the animals that fall into this nocturnal category? Come on, see the following reviews!

Nocturnal Animals

Based on KBBI (Big Indonesian Dictionary), nocturnal is a condition in which animals have the nature or habit of being active at night. Nocturnal animals will generally sleep during the day, then do activities such as looking for food at night. This behavior is very opposite to most humans …

Even though they have “different” behavior, their hearing, smell, and vision are very sharp, you know, so they can help them find prey in the dark of night.

If you are at the zoo, nocturnal animals will be placed in a special cage that is light-tight, so visitors can still visit during the day.

Then when night comes, what can these nocturnal animals do?

Of course there are many, they will generally look for food, carry out reproductive activities, to defend themselves from other predators. These activities can only be done at night by relying on their sharp hearing and smelling abilities. The eyes of these nocturnal animals also have special corneas so that they can still see even though the surrounding conditions are minimal.

Nocturnal Pet Food

Many people think that these nocturnal animals are predators or prey on other animals secretly at night. In fact, not all nocturnal animals are predators.

Generally, the food of these nocturnal animals is vegetables and fruits, but some prey on small insects such as mosquitoes and moths.

Nocturnal Animal Habitat

Nocturnal animals do not only live in the forest, they can even live in human settlements. For example, in city parks, farms, even your house can also become the habitat of nocturnal animals without you knowing it.

But did you know that desert areas are actually habitats that have many species of nocturnal animals? This is because the desert conditions during the day are very hot, in the end these animals are active at night which tends to be cooler.

Features of Nocturnal Animals

Previously, it was explained that nocturnal animals are always active at night? Therefore, these animals have “more” abilities than other animals, namely the ability to see even though the light around is very dim. This is because the eyes of nocturnal animals have larger corneas, lenses and pupils than most animals, which in turn can help them see in the dark.

Not only the ability to see, but also to the ability to hear and smell.

10 Animals That Are Active At Night

The nocturnal animals that we often know are bats. Though not only bats

Of course , you know , but there are still many nocturnal animals that we don’t realize are actually around us.

1. Bats

The most famous nocturnal animals are bats. This animal, which has become an icon for the Batman film, may at first glance look like a swallow. Did you know that the fictional depiction of a bat as a figure that drinks blood comes from its habit of often hiding in lonely castles, especially abroad.

Bats are mammals (breastfeeding) that belong to the Chiroptera nation. The term Chiroptera is a combination of two words, namely “cheir” which means hand, and “pteriga” which means wing. The term comes from the Greek.

Many think that bats are blind, but they are not! Their eyes are very sharp, even to see ultraviolet light can. This ability makes it easy for bats to find food at night.

Bats usually appear at night, especially when the fruit season comes. This is because bat food when hunting is fruit. Even though it looks detrimental, it turns out that these bats bring many benefits to human life, you know…

The Role of Bats for Human Life

• Helps Pollination and Natural Seed Dispersal

Many people think that these animals are fruit plant pests, but in fact bats actually act as natural dispersers of fruit seeds so that later they will help protect forest diversity.

Not only fruits, but also help pollinate flowers, especially those of high value. Several types of bats are also flower eaters, including nectar and pollen. Well, the movement of bats between flowers and fruit trees is an important process of pollination until finally fertilization occurs.

Many trees can grow through pollination and dissemination with the help of bats, namely banana, guava, sapodilla, petai, rubber, sandalwood, sugar palm, and banyan trees.

• Insect Control

Apart from eating fruits and flowers, bats also prey on insects at night. This is especially true for insectivorous bats which will prey on a large number of insects each night, around 600 mosquito-sized insects in an hour!

• Guano Fertilizer Producer

Guano fertilizer is a type of organic fertilizer derived from the decomposition of bird or bat droppings. Guano can generally be found in caves, containing phosphorus (derived from water droplets on the ceiling of the cave), nitrogen and potassium (from bat droppings).

This type of fertilizer because it contains a lot of good elements, it is very useful as a soil fertilizer for plants. The price of guano fertilizer is usually cheap but the benefits are also great, so it is sought after by many people.

2. Owl

In fictional stories, owls are usually depicted as old and wise in life. But apparently, in several places in Indonesia, this bird is considered a herald of death.

Owls are a type of bird that belongs to the order Strigiformes. Even though it looks “cute”, it turns out that this bird is a wild bird and a carnivore (meat eater). The owl’s eyes are large and always face forward. In addition, owls are also known as nocturnal animals because they have sharp eyesight and hearing.

Then how do the eyes of an owl work so that it can be called a nocturnal animal?

That is, when light enters the pupil of the eye, the light will later be captured by the receptors at the back of the eye. Well, at the back of the eye there is also a mirror-like organ, which is named the tapetum lucidum . When light passes through the rod and the tapetum lucidum, it will be reflected back on the part. So that the reflection of the light indirectly becomes its own ” irradiation ” for the owl to see. Therefore, if you see an owl whose eyes are shining, it means that its tapetum lucidum is ” walking “.

3. Cat

Surely Sinaumed’s is no stranger to this one animal. Yep, cats are one of the favorite pets and are always in any home.

Then, did you know that cats are also nocturnal animals?

Indeed, not all cats will be active at night like other nocturnal animals, but some cats behave that way. One of the reasons why cats are nocturnal animals that are active at night is their predatory instincts.

Have you ever seen a cat’s eyes glow when the lights in your house are turned off? Well, this vision ability allows cats to be active at night and detect light in the dark. However, it should also be noted that not all cats will carry out activities at night, there are also some who sleep soundly.

4. Koalas

This animal that has become an icon of Australia is also a nocturnal animal. Koalas will sleep during the day and be active at night. Koala sleep time is usually 18-20 hours each day.

Koala has the Latin name Phascolarctos Cinereus. Although they are often referred to as lazy animals because they are always sleeping, it turns out that they are good at swimming, you know … at a speed of about 18 miles per hour.

Koalas can usually be found along the east coast of Australia, from the Adelaide region to the Cape York Peninsula. If you live in a forest, a forest that has an average rainfall is very suitable as a place to live for koalas.

Its cute appearance makes many people want to have it as a pet. Even though this is wrong, because koalas do not fit into the suburban environment. Even the Australian government has emphasized that it is against the law to keep koalas as pets.

5. Fox

The fox has many types, one of which is the Fennec Fox which is also known as a nocturnal animal. This type of fox has a special feature, namely its ears which are about 10-15 cm long. In fact, there are also those whose ears reach a third of their body length.

The main food of the Fennec Fox is small animals and fruits, namely mice, lizards, snails, and various plants and fruits. Therefore, this type of fox is known as an omnivore as well as a nocturnal animal.

As a nocturnal animal that is active at night, the Fennec Fox is also the target of other predators, such as owls, hyenas, and even domestic dogs. Unfortunately, today the Fennec Fox is often hunted by humans because of its beautiful silky hair.

6. Frog

Frogs are different from toads. The most striking difference is that frogs live in humid areas and must be close to the presence of water. While frogs tend to live on land and do not have to be close to the presence of water.

Some frogs are nocturnal animals, but some are diurnal animals. As nocturnal animals, frogs will be active at night or around sunset. Generally, frogs have camouflage abilities so they can hide during the day. This camouflage ability is also used as the main defense to hide from predators and repel predators.

There are several reasons why the word tends to be active at night, one of which is to increase humidity at night.

7. Hedgehog

Porcupines are included in the Rodentia or rodent group. The main feature of this animal is that it has sharp spines around its back. As nocturnal animals, hedgehogs will behave actively by exploring their surroundings at night. Even when a threat comes, the hedgehog can immediately roll itself up like a ball.

Nocturnal animals are known to have special abilities, as well as hedgehogs who have a sense of smell on their long snout. To get food, porcupines will dig the ground using their curved claws.

Usually, hedgehogs can live in forests, savannas, teachers, and even home gardens. Their nest is hidden under the bushes. Almost the same as armadillo animals, porcupines can also roll their bodies into a ball shape to protect themselves from predators.

8. Mice

Mice are nocturnal animals that are often found around human settlements. This animal is part of the order Rodentia or rodents. Even though most of them are small, almost like hamsters, it turns out that mice often become plant pests and are detrimental to humans.

As nocturnal animals, of course rats will move “as pests” at night, that is, when humans are resting. However, nowadays there are many ways to control rat pests, for example, with rat poison and mouse traps.

9. Tarsiers

Tarsiers are a type of primate that has a small size, so it is called the smallest primate in the world. Tarsiers come from the island of Sulawesi and there are about eleven types of tarsier scattered in the jungle area.

During the day, tarsiers behave passively by sleeping in their hiding places. Interestingly, when sleeping, this animal can close only one eye and leave the other eye open.

However, unlike most nocturnal animals, tarsiers do not have a light-reflecting area or tapetum lucidum behind their eyes. Even so, his eyes remained sharp to see the surroundings at night. In fact, the size of the eye on the tarsier is actually the largest organ compared to other head organs.

Like the owl, the tarsier can turn its head 180 degrees to see its prey.

10. Weasel

One type of civet which is a nocturnal animal is the Pandan Weasel. It is called that because this type of weasel has a body odor like pandan leaves, but is more commonly referred to as Luwak.

As a nocturnal animal, weasels will be active at night and become the main predator for livestock. Therefore, most people are wary of the existence of this weasel.

But not only “losses” are provided by the civet, but also benefits. Call it civet coffee which is produced from the rest of the digestion of this weasel, it turns out that it has a fantastic price!

Well, that’s an explanation of nocturnal animals or animals that are active at night. Although some of them give harm to humans, it turns out that there are also benefits.

The Concept of Geography – Geography is a scientific study that provides a very meaningful horizon for the earth as a human habitation. The difference between geography and other disciplines is in its ontology, which is a material object that is applied in approaches, principles, and concepts to the object under study. In practice, geography has its own concept which is closely related to social problems in society. That is why the study of this science always has a concept of geography that continues to grow.

The word geography that we often hear is actually the origin of the word comes from the Greek language which consists of two words, namely “Geo” and “Graphein”. The word “Geo” means earth and “Graphein” means “painting”, “description”, or “writing”. So, it can be said that geography is a description or description of the earth.

Meanwhile, in the Big Indonesian Dictionary (KBBI) geography is the science of the earth’s surface, climate, population, flora, fauna, and the results obtained from the earth.

Geography’s way of looking at the earth as a place where living things live is not as a way to take inventory of all the phenomena that are spread over the earth’s surface. The point of view of geography on a phenomenon on the surface of the earth requires a number of basic and essential concepts that are interrelated (Marhadi, 2014). The basic concepts of geography according to Suharyono and Moch Amien (1994) are the most important concepts that describe the structure of the science itself.

In learning the basics of geography, the book Geography Accuracy by Rino Agustianto, S.Pd can help you to be more interested in learning and practicing various types of related questions.

Geography as a scientific study also has what is called the concept of geography. there are ten geographic concepts, including: the concept of location, distance, morphology, affordability, pattern, agglomeration, use value, interaction and interdependence, area differentiation, and spatial linkages. Here is the full explanation:

10 Geography Concepts With Examples

Here are 10 geography concepts you need to know.

1. Location Concept

The concept of location or often referred to as the concept of location is the main concept which from the beginning of the growth of geography has become a special characteristic of geography science or knowledge. In essence, the location is divided into two, namely the absolute location and relative location.

Absolute location means showing a definite location such as the location of an object on the earth’s surface determined by the coordinate system of latitude and longitude. The location is absolute and the coordinates will not change. The concept of geography is usually difficult to change and will take a very long time to experience the phenomenon.

While what is meant by relative location is a geographical concept that has a dynamic nature or in geography is usually referred to as a geographical location which is usually associated with the strategic location or not of a place. The value attached to the high and low object is determined by the object or other objects that are related to the first object that is the point of attention.

The value of an object on the basis of its location can change due to changes in external conditions related to the object. The concept of the location of a place on the surface of the earth has economic value when it is linked to price.

Location Concept Example:

In cold areas people tend to dress thickly or warmly, the value of land or land for settlements will decrease if it is close to factories, cemeteries, markets, public transportation terminals because of the noise and pollution that occurs around it.

A book entitled Indonesian History Geography can help you understand the concept of this location, in which there is an explanation of the territorial layout and population of a location. If Sinaumed’s is interested, click “buy now” below.

2. The Concept of Distance

The geographical concept of distance is related to location because the value of an object can be determined by its distance to another object. The concept of geography is also divided into two, namely absolute distance and relative distance. Absolute distance means the distance in certain units or the actual distance.

While the relative distance is the distance depicted on an isochronic map which describes the distance that can be traveled in the same time, isophodic maps describe the distance traveled with the same cost, and isotacic maps describe areas with the same transport speed.

So, the concept of geography of distance is related to the benefits so that humans tend to take distance into account. Therefore, the concept of distance is also often used by business owners so that every shipment of goods can be calculated optimally.

Distance Concept Example:

• Land prices will be more expensive when approaching the city center compared to land prices in rural areas.
• Laying hens tend to be located closer to the city as a marketing location so that the eggs and chickens brought to the marketing area are not damaged much compared to if the farm is placed far from the city.

3. Concept of Morphology

The concept of morphology describes the land surface of the earth as the result of subsidence or lifting of areas through geological processes which are usually accompanied by erosion and sedimentation so that some are in the form of islands, mountainous landmasses with eroded slopes, valleys and alluvial plains.

This morphological concept is also related to land forms that are affected by erosion, deposition, land use, soil thickness, and water availability. The shape of the plains with a slope of no more than 5 degrees is an area suitable for settlements and agricultural and other businesses.

So, the concept of morphology relates to the shape of the earth’s surface as a result of natural processes and its relationship with human activities.

Examples of Morphological Concepts:

• The shape of the land will be related to erosion and deposition, land use, thickness of the soil layer, water availability, and others.
• From the map of population distribution in Asia, the dense population is concentrated in the alluvial plains of the major river valleys and fertile soils. Meanwhile, high mountain areas, desert areas, swamp areas are areas that are difficult to reach and are generally sparsely populated.

4. Affordability Concept

The concept of affordability is whether or not a location can be easily reached from another location. Affordability depends on the distance traveled and as measured by physical distance, costs, time, and various terrain obstacles experienced. With this concept, someone will know the time needed and the costs that must be incurred when they want to go to an area.

As technology, transportation, and the economy advance, affordability is getting higher so that distances become very short and the world becomes a global world that is easier to reach. Therefore, the geographical concept of affordability can make it easy for humans to go somewhere.

Low affordability will certainly affect the difficulty of achieving progress and developing an area. The concept of affordability is an interaction between places, so that it can be achieved either by public, traditional or walking means of transportation.

Affordability Concept Example:

• The affordability of Jakarta-Semarang can be by plane, while Jakarta-Bandung is by train.
• The Pati area produces rice and the Brebes area produces shallots. These two areas will not interact if there is no supporting transportation. An area will not progress if it cannot be reached by means of transportation. It will definitely be slow to become an advanced region from various sectors.

5. Pattern Concept

The concept of pattern means that it relates to the distribution of phenomena on the earth’s surface, both natural phenomena such as river flow, distribution of vegetation, soil types, and rainfall as well as socio-cultural phenomena such as settlements, population distribution, livelihoods, and types of housing where people live. With the concept of this pattern, the distribution that occurs on this earth will be more easily known by many people.

In the concept of geography, we will study the patterns and distribution of phenomena, understand their meaning and try to make use of them. The concept of pattern is a form of human interaction with the environment or the interaction of nature with nature and socio-culture. Therefore, if we want to see a phenomenon that occurs in an area, we can use the concept of pattern geography.

Pattern Concept Example

River flow patterns are related to geological structures and rock types. Population settlement patterns are related to rivers, roads, land forms and so on.

Finding Resti’s house address in real estate is easier than finding Husein’s address who lives in a village. This is due to the fact that Resti’s housing arrangement in real estate is more orderly than Husein’s spatial arrangement which is not well planned in the village.

6. The concept of Agglomeration

The concept of agglomeration means a grouping of various human activities in adapting to their environment such as settlements, agricultural activities, trade, and others. Several geographic realities that can be studied with the concept of agglomeration, especially regarding the human aspect.

The concept of agglomeration is a tendency to spread in clusters in a relatively narrow and profitable area, both considering the similarity of symptoms and the presence of favorable general factors. The pattern of population agglomeration is divided into three, namely clustered patterns, randomly distributed patterns and regularly distributed patterns.

Example of the concept of agglomeration

There is a trend of grouping residences in cities for those who come from the same area, grouping settlements in agricultural areas, close to water areas and so on. Rich people live in elite areas while poor people live in slums.

7. The Concept of Use-Value

The concept of usability value means that human interaction with the environment is given an important value in certain aspects. This has to do with physical functions such as water absorption, animal habitats, and microclimate. Social functions such as aesthetics, and a place to play from the space. For certain types of fauna, it is necessary to give usability values ​​because of their function in the ecosystem.

The use of an area has its own value for the people who inhabit it. Cool areas in the mountains far from noise, such as Dieng, Bogor, are often used as places of recreation and rest. Fertile agricultural land is of greater value to farmers than to fishermen or office workers. In simple terms, the concept of utility value allows us to know about the function of a geographic location to the maximum.

Examples of Use-Value Concepts:

• A professor views mineral-containing springs such as those in Ciater, West Java, as an object of research, while a teenager or child views the place as a tourist or recreational object, even as a place for treating skin diseases by some residents.
• A green open space in a city or residential area has utility value in geography.

8. The Concept of Interaction and Interdependence

The concept of interaction is a form of mutual relationship between two or more areas that can produce new realities, appearances, and problems. In the concept of interaction one phenomenon depends on another.
Example: urban and rural interactions occur due to differences in natural potential. Villages produce raw materials while cities produce industrial products. These two areas are interconnected so that there is interaction.

The concept of interaction and interdependence is that each region cannot fulfill its own needs but requires relations with other regions, thus giving rise to interaction (reciprocal) relationships in the form of flows of goods, services, communications, the spread of ideas, and so on.

Examples of Interaction and Interdependence Concepts:

Rural areas produce more raw materials to make a product that has more value. Meanwhile, urban areas are more often used as a place to produce an industrial product. Therefore, both villages and cities are interconnected and need each other, so that there is interaction.

9. The concept of area differentiation

The ninth geographic concept is area differentiation. Regions or areas on the earth’s surface have different physical, resource and human conditions. Various geographical symptoms and problems that are spread out in space have different characteristics.

Example of Area Differentiation:

Similar urban problems in different cities require alternative solutions to different problems according to their spatial characteristics. This is what is the focus of geography which requires adaptation in the study of knowledge in the field so that it can produce maximum problem solving.

The spatial structure or spatial distribution of a region is related to other regions. Regions on the surface of the earth have different values ​​contained in them. For example, vegetable farming is produced in mountainous areas, marine fisheries or ponds in coastal areas. Urban areas that are dominated by cultural landscapes have a different spatial layout from rural areas which are dominated by landscapes.

10. Geographical Concepts in Room Relationships

Geography is a science of synthesis, meaning that there is an interrelationship between physical and human phenomena which characterizes an area with a pattern of integration or synthesis which is evident in regional studies. The broad scope of the object of study of geography has an impact on the main and sub-topics presented in geography lessons at school.

To show geographic identity, this essential concept must exist in each subject and sub-topic. Not all concepts forced their presence in the subject or sub-topics. Its appearance is adjusted to its relevance and urgency. A region can develop because of its relationship with other regions or the interrelationships between regions in meeting the social and needs of its population.

Examples of Geographical Concepts in Room Connections

If examined through a map, there is spatial conservation or regional linkages between areas A, B, C and D. Drought and flooding in Jakarta are also closely related to land conversion in the upstream area around the Puncak-Cianjur area.

Conclusion

These ten geographic concepts are deliberately made to unify the discussion in geographical thinking which has a very broad scope. So, without the concept of geography, every human being will not be easy to do something. Everything is a start to begin to understand the study of geography in a more structured way.

Thus, geography education can start from basic education to tertiary education and must cover these ten geography concepts, only that the material provided is adjusted to the level of education pursued. The most complete geography concept material is given when someone enters the education level of class X or class 1 of high school.

sinaumedia friends, that’s an explanation of the ten geography concepts and examples, hopefully it can help you to complete your assignments as well as an additional source of reference and also to add insight.

The yeast is one of 10 special payloads or Secondary Payloads that Artemis I carries into lunar orbit and back to Earth. The yeast is a research effort carried out by BioSentinel and has been approved by NASA to be carried on the Artemis I mission. It is known that the Artemis I

mission to be initiated by the Orion spacecraft is an unmanned mission. It’s just that the mission transports special specimens that are very related to future space flights.

Includes BioSentinel’s proprietary yeast. Explained Matthew Napoli, Project Manager BioSentinel, yeast cells have a biological mechanism similar to human cells. In the Artemis I mission, the yeast cells will be studied while in space.

Like how yeast cells react to space radiation. In addition, they will also study the metabolic activity of yeast cells after being exposed to a high-radiation environment beyond low-earth orbit.

“This mission is very exciting because it will take living organisms into space even further than ever before,” said Matthew Napoli.

It is known that after circling the moon, Artemis I will also send a satellite containing a secondary payload on a long mission. It is planned for seven to nine months the secondary payload including BioSentinel’s yeast will be in orbit around the sun.

Meanwhile the team on Earth periodically trigger week-long yeast studies to examine microorganisms. To do so, they will use a new biosensor, which NASA describes as a mini biotechnology laboratory.